Ancient DNA

Ancient DNA (aDNA) is DNA isolated from ancient specimens.^[1]^[2] Due to degradation processes (including cross-linking, deamination and fragmentation)^[3] ancient DNA is more degraded in comparison with contemporary genetic material.^[4] Even under the best preservation conditions, there is an upper boundary of 0.4–1.5 million years for a sample to contain sufficient DNA for sequencing technologies.^[5] The oldest sample ever sequenced is estimated to be 1.65 million years old.^[6] Genetic material has been recovered from paleo/archaeological and historical skeletal material, mummified tissues, archival collections of non-frozen medical specimens, preserved plant remains, ice and from permafrost cores, marine and lake sediments and excavation dirt. In 2022, two-million year old genetic material was found in Greenland, and is currently considered the oldest DNA discovered so far.^[7]^[8]

^ Pevsner J (2015). Bioinformatics and Functional Genomics (3rd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1118581780.
^ Jones M (2016). Unlocking the Past: How Archaeologists Are Rewriting Human History with Ancient DNA. Arcade. ISBN 978-1628724479.
^ Anderson LA (May 2023). "A chemical framework for the preservation of fossil vertebrate cells and soft tissues". Earth-Science Reviews. 240: 104367. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104367. S2CID 257326012.
^ Cite error: The named reference Allentoft, M.E. 2012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Willerslev E, Hansen AJ, Rønn R, Brand TB, Barnes I, Wiuf C, et al. (January 2004). "Long-term persistence of bacterial DNA" (PDF). Current Biology. 14 (1): R9-10. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2003.12.012. PMID 14711425. S2CID 12227538.
^ van der Valk T, Pečnerová P, Díez-Del-Molino D, Bergström A, Oppenheimer J, Hartmann S, et al. (March 2021). "Million-year-old DNA sheds light on the genomic history of mammoths". Nature. 591 (7849): 265–269. Bibcode:2021Natur.591..265V. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03224-9. PMC 7116897. PMID 33597750.
^ Cite error: The named reference NYT-20221207 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Cite error: The named reference NAT-20221207 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[Pevsner_2015-1] Pevsner J (2015). Bioinformatics and Functional Genomics (3rd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1118581780.

[Jones_2016-2] Jones M (2016). Unlocking the Past: How Archaeologists Are Rewriting Human History with Ancient DNA. Arcade. ISBN 978-1628724479.

[Anderson_2023-3] Anderson LA (May 2023). "A chemical framework for the preservation of fossil vertebrate cells and soft tissues". Earth-Science Reviews. 240: 104367. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104367. S2CID 257326012.

[Allentoft,_M.E._2012-4] Cite error: The named reference Allentoft, M.E. 2012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[Willerslev,_E._2004._pp.9-5] Willerslev E, Hansen AJ, Rønn R, Brand TB, Barnes I, Wiuf C, et al. (January 2004). "Long-term persistence of bacterial DNA" (PDF). Current Biology. 14 (1): R9-10. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2003.12.012. PMID 14711425. S2CID 12227538.

[van_der_Valk_2021-6] van der Valk T, Pečnerová P, Díez-Del-Molino D, Bergström A, Oppenheimer J, Hartmann S, et al. (March 2021). "Million-year-old DNA sheds light on the genomic history of mammoths". Nature. 591 (7849): 265–269. Bibcode:2021Natur.591..265V. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03224-9. PMC 7116897. PMID 33597750.

[NYT-20221207-7] Cite error: The named reference NYT-20221207 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[NAT-20221207-8] Cite error: The named reference NAT-20221207 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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