Asceticism

Pursuing enlightenment, the historical Buddha first practiced severe asceticism before recommending a moderated "Middle Way".^[1] In Christianity, Francis of Assisi and his followers practiced extreme acts of mortification.^[2]

Asceticism^[a] is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from worldly pleasures through self-discipline, self-imposed poverty, and simple living,^[3] often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals.^[4] Ascetics may withdraw from the world for their practices or continue to be part of their society, but typically adopt a frugal lifestyle,^[5] characterised by the renunciation of material possessions and physical pleasures, and also spend time fasting while concentrating on the practice of religion, prayer, or meditation.^[6] Some individuals have also attempted an ascetic lifestyle to free themselves from addictions to things such as alcohol, tobacco, drugs, entertainment, sex, food, etc.^[7]

Asceticism has been historically observed in many religious and philosophical traditions,^[8] most notably among Ancient Greek philosophical schools^[5] (Epicureanism, Gymnosophism, Stoicism, and Pythagoreanism),^[5] Indian religions (Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism),^[8] Abrahamic religions^[8] (Christianity, Judaism, Islam),^[8] and contemporary practices continue amongst some of their followers.^[7] Practitioners abandon sensual pleasures and lead an abstinent lifestyle,^[5] in the pursuit of redemption,^[9] salvation,^[6] and/or spirituality.^[10] Many ascetics believe the action of purifying the body helps to purify the body and soul, and that in doing so, they will obtain a greater connection with the Divine or find inner peace.^[5] This may take the form of rituals, the renunciation of wealth and sensual pleasures,^[5] and/or self-mortification in order to pursue spiritual goals.^[8]

However, ascetics maintain that self-imposed constraints bring them greater freedom in various areas of their lives, such as increased clarity of thought and the ability to resist potentially destructive temptations. Asceticism is seen in some ancient theologies as a journey towards spiritual transformation, where the simple is sufficient, the bliss is within, the frugal is plenty.^[6] Inversely, several ancient religious traditions, such as Zoroastrianism, Ancient Egyptian religion,^[11] the Dionysian Mysteries, and vāmācāra, abstain from ascetic practices and focus on various types of good deeds in the world and the importance of family life.

^ Laumakis, Stephen J. (2023) [2018]. "Chapter 3: The Basic Teachings of the Buddha". An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy. Cambridge Introductions to Philosophy (2nd ed.). Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 48. doi:10.1017/9781009337076.005. ISBN 9781009337076. Having lived and experienced both the excesses and deficiencies of the extremes of pleasure and deprivation, the Buddha was painfully aware of their debilitating consequences. On the one hand, the pleasurable excesses of his princely life were not satisfying for at least two reasons: while enjoying them he was poignantly aware of their imminent passing, and while not enjoying them he found himself longing for what he knew could not truly satisfy him because of their inherent transience. On the other hand, his experiments with extreme ascetic practices left him physically emaciated and mentally unfulfilled. Moreover, these practices failed to produce their advertised goals and promised ends; they left him both mentally distracted and physically enfeebled. So, his followers insisted that one of the most basic teachings of the "Awakened One" was his insistence on the "Middle Way" between the two extremes of pleasure and pain.
^ William Cook (2008), Francis of Assisi: The Way of Poverty and Humility, Wipf and Stock Publishers, ISBN 978-1556357305, p. 46–47.
^ Randall Collins (2000), The sociology of philosophies: a global theory of intellectual change, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674001879, p. 204.
^ "Asceticism". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Finn, Richard (2009). "Pagan asceticism: cultic and contemplative purity". Asceticism in the Graeco-Roman World. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 9–33. ISBN 978-1-139-48066-6. LCCN 2009009367.
^ ^a ^b ^c Finn, Richard (2009). "Christian asceticism before Origen". Asceticism in the Graeco-Roman World. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–99. ISBN 978-1-139-48066-6. LCCN 2009009367.
^ ^a ^b Deezia, Burabari S. (Autumn 2017). "IAFOR Journal of Ethics, Religion & Philosophy" (PDF). Asceticism: A Match Towards the Absolute. 3 (2): 14. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Furey, Constance M. (March 2012). "Body, Society, and Subjectivity in Religious Studies". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 80 (1). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Academy of Religion: 7–33. doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfr088. ISSN 1477-4585. LCCN sc76000837. OCLC 1479270. PMID 22530258. S2CID 45476670.
^ Valantasis, Richard; Wimbush, Vincent L. (2002). Asceticism. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 247, 351. ISBN 978-0-19-803451-3.
^ Denton, Lynn (1992). Leslie, Julia (ed.). Roles and Rituals for Hindu Women. Delhi and London: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 212–219. ISBN 978-81-208-1036-5.
^ Wilson, John A. (1969). "Egyptian Secular Songs and Poems". Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 467.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

[Laumakis_2023-1] Laumakis, Stephen J. (2023) [2018]. "Chapter 3: The Basic Teachings of the Buddha". An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy. Cambridge Introductions to Philosophy (2nd ed.). Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 48. doi:10.1017/9781009337076.005. ISBN 9781009337076. Having lived and experienced both the excesses and deficiencies of the extremes of pleasure and deprivation, the Buddha was painfully aware of their debilitating consequences. On the one hand, the pleasurable excesses of his princely life were not satisfying for at least two reasons: while enjoying them he was poignantly aware of their imminent passing, and while not enjoying them he found himself longing for what he knew could not truly satisfy him because of their inherent transience. On the other hand, his experiments with extreme ascetic practices left him physically emaciated and mentally unfulfilled. Moreover, these practices failed to produce their advertised goals and promised ends; they left him both mentally distracted and physically enfeebled. So, his followers insisted that one of the most basic teachings of the "Awakened One" was his insistence on the "Middle Way" between the two extremes of pleasure and pain.

[2] William Cook (2008), Francis of Assisi: The Way of Poverty and Humility, Wipf and Stock Publishers, ISBN 978-1556357305, p. 46–47.

[4] Randall Collins (2000), The sociology of philosophies: a global theory of intellectual change, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674001879, p. 204.

[Asceticism-5] "Asceticism". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 9 January 2021.

[Finn2009p10-6] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Finn, Richard (2009). "Pagan asceticism: cultic and contemplative purity". Asceticism in the Graeco-Roman World. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 9–33. ISBN 978-1-139-48066-6. LCCN 2009009367.

[Finn2009p94-7] Finn, Richard (2009). "Christian asceticism before Origen". Asceticism in the Graeco-Roman World. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–99. ISBN 978-1-139-48066-6. LCCN 2009009367.

[volume-8] Deezia, Burabari S. (Autumn 2017). "IAFOR Journal of Ethics, Religion & Philosophy" (PDF). Asceticism: A Match Towards the Absolute. 3 (2): 14. Retrieved 10 January 2021.

[Furey_2012-9] Furey, Constance M. (March 2012). "Body, Society, and Subjectivity in Religious Studies". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 80 (1). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Academy of Religion: 7–33. doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfr088. ISSN 1477-4585. LCCN sc76000837. OCLC 1479270. PMID 22530258. S2CID 45476670.

[10] Valantasis, Richard; Wimbush, Vincent L. (2002). Asceticism. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 247, 351. ISBN 978-0-19-803451-3.

[Leslie1992p212-11] Denton, Lynn (1992). Leslie, Julia (ed.). Roles and Rituals for Hindu Women. Delhi and London: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 212–219. ISBN 978-81-208-1036-5.

[12] Wilson, John A. (1969). "Egyptian Secular Songs and Poems". Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 467.

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