Blackwater river

A swamp-fed stream in northern Florida, showing tannin-stained undisturbed blackwater

A blackwater river is a type of river with a slow-moving channel flowing through forested swamps or wetlands. Most major blackwater rivers are in the Amazon Basin and the Southern United States. The term is used in fluvial studies, geology, geography, ecology, and biology. Not all dark rivers are blackwater in that technical sense. Some rivers in temperate regions, which drain or flow through areas of dark black loam, are simply black due to the color of the soil; these rivers are black mud rivers. There are also black mud estuaries.

Blackwater rivers are lower in nutrients than whitewater rivers and have ionic concentrations higher than rainwater.^[1]^[2] The unique conditions lead to flora and fauna that differ from both whitewater and clearwater rivers.^[3] The classification of Amazonian rivers into black, clear, and whitewater was first proposed by Alfred Russel Wallace in 1853 based on water colour, but the types were more clearly defined by chemistry and physics by Harald Sioli [de] from the 1950s to the 1980s.^[3]^[4] Although many Amazonian rivers fall clearly into one of these categories, others show a mix of characteristics and may vary depending on season and flood levels.^[5]

^ Janzen, D. H. (July 1974). "Tropical Blackwater Rivers, Animals, and Mast Fruiting by the Dipterocarpaceae". Biotropica. 6 (2): 69–103. doi:10.2307/2989823. JSTOR 2989823.
^ Sioli, Harald (1975). "Tropical rivers as expressions of their terrestrial environments". Tropical Ecological Systems/Trends in Terrestrial and Aquatic Research. New York City: Springer-Verlag: 275–288.
^ ^a ^b Duncan, W. P.; Fernandes, M. N. (2010). "Physicochemical characterization of the white, black, and clearwater rivers of the Amazon Basin and its implications on the distribution of freshwater stingrays (Chondrichthyes, Potamotrygonidae)" (PDF). PanamJAS. 5 (3): 454–464. Archived from the original on 13 November 2021.
^ Sioli, H., ed. (1984). The Amazon: Limnology and landscape ecology of a mighty tropical river and its basin. Springer. ISBN 978-94-009-6544-7.
^ Goulding, M.; Carvalho, M. L. (1982). "Life history and management of the tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum, Characidae): an important Amazonian food fish". Revista Brasileira de Zoologia. 1 (2): 107–133. doi:10.1590/S0101-81751982000200001.

[1] Janzen, D. H. (July 1974). "Tropical Blackwater Rivers, Animals, and Mast Fruiting by the Dipterocarpaceae". Biotropica. 6 (2): 69–103. doi:10.2307/2989823. JSTOR 2989823.

[2] Sioli, Harald (1975). "Tropical rivers as expressions of their terrestrial environments". Tropical Ecological Systems/Trends in Terrestrial and Aquatic Research. New York City: Springer-Verlag: 275–288.

[Duncan-3] Duncan, W. P.; Fernandes, M. N. (2010). "Physicochemical characterization of the white, black, and clearwater rivers of the Amazon Basin and its implications on the distribution of freshwater stingrays (Chondrichthyes, Potamotrygonidae)" (PDF). PanamJAS. 5 (3): 454–464. Archived from the original on 13 November 2021.

[Sioli1984-4] Sioli, H., ed. (1984). The Amazon: Limnology and landscape ecology of a mighty tropical river and its basin. Springer. ISBN 978-94-009-6544-7.

[Goulding1982-5] Goulding, M.; Carvalho, M. L. (1982). "Life history and management of the tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum, Characidae): an important Amazonian food fish". Revista Brasileira de Zoologia. 1 (2): 107–133. doi:10.1590/S0101-81751982000200001.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]