Meteorology

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Meteorology is the scientific study of the Earth's atmosphere and short-term atmospheric phenomena (i.e. weather), with a focus on weather forecasting.^[1] It has applications in the military, aviation, energy production, transport, agriculture, construction, weather warnings and disaster management.

Along with climatology, atmospheric physics and atmospheric chemistry, meteorology forms the broader field of the atmospheric sciences. The interactions between Earth's atmosphere and its oceans (notably El Niño and La Niña) are studied in the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology. Other interdisciplinary areas include biometeorology, space weather and planetary meteorology. Marine weather forecasting relates meteorology to maritime and coastal safety, based on atmospheric interactions with large bodies of water.

Meteorologists study meteorological phenomena driven by solar radiation, Earth's rotation, ocean currents and other factors. These include everyday weather like clouds, precipitation, wind patterns as well as severe weather events such as tropical cyclones and severe winter storms. Such phenomena are quantified using variables like temperature, pressure and humidity, which are then used to forecast weather at local (microscale), regional (mesoscale and synoptic scale), and global scales. Meteorologists collect data using basic instruments like thermometers, barometers and weather vanes (for surface-level measurements), alongside advanced tools like weather satellites, balloons, reconnaissance aircraft, buoys and radars. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) ensures international standardization of meteorological research.

The study of meteorology dates back millennia. Ancient civilizations tried to predict weather through folklore, astrology and religious rituals. Aristotle's treatise Meteorology sums up early observations of the field, which advanced little during early medieval times, but experienced a resurgence during the Renaissance, when Alhazen and Descartes challenged Aristotelian theories, emphasizing scientific methods. In the 18th century, accurate measurement tools (e.g. barometer and thermometer) were developed and the first meteorological society was founded. In the 19th century, telegraph-based weather observation networks were formed across broad regions.^[2] In the 20th century, numerical weather prediction (NWP), coupled with advanced satellite and radar technology, introduced sophisticated forecasting models.^[3] Later, computers revolutionized forecasting by processing vast datasets in real time and automatically solving modelling equations. 21st-century meteorology is highly accurate and driven by big data and supercomputing. It is adopting innovations like machine learning, ensemble forecasting and high-resolution global climate modeling.^[4] Climate change-induced extreme weather poses new challenges for forecasting and research,^[5] while inherent uncertainty remains because of the atmosphere's chaotic nature (see butterfly effect).^[6]