Ten Commandments

The Ten Commandments (Biblical Hebrew: עֲשֶׂרֶת הַדְּבָרִים‎, romanized: ʿĂsereṯ haDəḇārīm, lit. 'The Ten Words'), or the Decalogue (from Latin decalogus, from Ancient Greek δεκάλογος, dekálogos, lit. 'ten words'), are religious and ethical directives, structured as a covenant document, that, according to the Hebrew Bible, were given by YHWH to Moses. The text of the Ten Commandments appears in three markedly distinct versions in the Bible:^[1] at Exodus 20:1–17, Deuteronomy 5:6–21, and the "Ritual Decalogue" of Exodus 34:11–26.

The biblical narrative describes how God revealed the Ten Commandments to the Israelites at Mount Sinai amidst thunder and fire, gave Moses two stone tablets inscribed with the law, which he later broke in anger after witnessing the worship of a golden calf, and then received a second set of tablets to be placed in the Ark of the Covenant.

Scholars have proposed a range of dates and contexts for the origins of the Decalogue.^[2] Interpretations of its content vary widely, reflecting debates over its legal, political, and theological development, its relation to ancient treaty forms, and differing views on authorship and emphasis on ritual versus ethics.

Different religious traditions divide the seventeen verses of Exodus 20:1–17 and Deuteronomy 5:4–21 into ten commandments in distinct ways, often influenced by theological or mnemonic priorities despite the presence of more than ten imperative statements in the texts. The Ten Commandments are the foundational core of Jewish law, connecting and supporting all other commandments and guiding Jewish ritual and ethics. Most Christian traditions regard the Ten Commandments as divinely authoritative and foundational to moral life, though they differ in interpretation, emphasis, and application within their theological frameworks. The Quran presents the Ten Commandments given to Moses as moral and legal guidance focused on monotheism, justice, and righteousness, paralleling but differing slightly from the biblical version. Interpretive differences arise from varying religious traditions, translations, and cultural contexts affecting Sabbath observance, prohibitions on killing and theft, views on idolatry, and definitions of adultery.

Some scholars have criticized the Ten Commandments as outdated, authoritarian, and potentially harmful in certain interpretations, such as those justifying harsh punishments or religious violence, like the 1846 Galician uprising. In the United States, they have remained a contentious symbol in public spaces and schools, with debates intensifying through the 20th and 21st centuries and culminating in recent laws in Texas and Louisiana mandating their display—laws now facing legal challenges over church-state separation. The Ten Commandments have been depicted or referenced in various media, including two major films by Cecil B. DeMille, the Polish series Dekalog, the American comedy The Ten, multiple musicals and films, and a satirical scene in Mel Brooks’s History of the World Part I.

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^ Rom-Shiloni, Dalit (2019). "The Decalogue". In Barmash, Pamela (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Law. Oxford University Press. pp. 135–155. ISBN 978-0-19-939266-7. “Three main dating schemes have been proposed: (1) it was suggested that the Decalogue was the earliest legal code given at Sinai, with Moses as author, and the Amphictyony confederation as its setting (Albright 1939, 1949, Buber 1998, and others); (2) the Decalogue was considered a product of the pre-exilic monarchic period, well embedded in the deuteronomistic writings, but presumed to reflect earlier periods of evolution (and possibly to be of northern origin; Carmichael 1985, Reventlow 1962, and Weinfeld 1990, 1991, 2001, among others); (3) the Decalogue has been understood as a postexilic product shaped primarily by deuteronomistic and priestly currents in the eighth century BCE and forward, and secondarily by prophetic and or wisdom influences. Among the features that seem to point to the lateness of the collection are its gradual literary evolution and its place within the Sinai traditions (Aaron 2006, Blum 2011, Hölscher 1988, and others). Harrelson (1962, who accepted this third dating suggestion) was cautious enough to admit that there were no good arguments to substantiate firmly any of these general frameworks”

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[Rom-Shiloni-2] Rom-Shiloni, Dalit (2019). "The Decalogue". In Barmash, Pamela (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Law. Oxford University Press. pp. 135–155. ISBN 978-0-19-939266-7. “Three main dating schemes have been proposed: (1) it was suggested that the Decalogue was the earliest legal code given at Sinai, with Moses as author, and the Amphictyony confederation as its setting (Albright 1939, 1949, Buber 1998, and others); (2) the Decalogue was considered a product of the pre-exilic monarchic period, well embedded in the deuteronomistic writings, but presumed to reflect earlier periods of evolution (and possibly to be of northern origin; Carmichael 1985, Reventlow 1962, and Weinfeld 1990, 1991, 2001, among others); (3) the Decalogue has been understood as a postexilic product shaped primarily by deuteronomistic and priestly currents in the eighth century BCE and forward, and secondarily by prophetic and or wisdom influences. Among the features that seem to point to the lateness of the collection are its gradual literary evolution and its place within the Sinai traditions (Aaron 2006, Blum 2011, Hölscher 1988, and others). Harrelson (1962, who accepted this third dating suggestion) was cautious enough to admit that there were no good arguments to substantiate firmly any of these general frameworks”

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