Confederate railroads in the American Civil War

The American Civil War was the first conflict where large armies heavily relied on railroads for transporting supplies. The Confederate States Army's railroad system was fragile and primarily designed for short hauls of cotton to nearby rivers or ocean port. Due to the South's limited manufacturing and industrial capacity, obtaining new parts during the war was challenging. Consequently, the railroad system deteriorated due to overuse, lack of maintenance, and systematic destruction by Union raiders.^[1]

The outbreak of war negatively impacted the Confederate railroad industry's economic fortunes. With the cotton crop hoarded under the "King Cotton" theory, railroads lost their primary source of income.^[2] Many had to lay off employees, including skilled technicians and engineers.^[2] Believing the war would be short, Confederate rail operators initially did not seek or build alternative sources of iron for rail construction and repair.^[3]

Although railroad contracts to port towns had ceased due to the cotton export policy and the Union naval blockade, lucrative government contracts were given to rail operators with lines supplying men and arms to the front lines in Tennessee and Virginia.^[2] A consortium of rail operators established a universal rate for government contracts: two cents per mile for men and half the regular local rate for munitions, provisions, and materials. They also agreed to accept Confederate bonds at par as payment for government transportation.^[4]

The Confederacy's rail network suffered from two key deficiencies. First, the route structure was designed to serve the coastal shipping industry, with most lines connecting ports and river terminals to inland points. This lack of inter-railway connections rendered many railroads useless once the Union blockade was in place. Second, there was a break of gauge issue: much of the Confederate rail network used the 5 ft (1,524 mm) broad gauge, while much of North Carolina and Virginia used the 4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm) standard gauge. This often required cargo to be unloaded from one railroad and transported by animal-powered means to another station with a different gauge, as seen in cities like Montgomery, Alabama. Additionally, Southern railroads west of the Mississippi were isolated, disconnected, and varied widely in gauge.^[5] In contrast, many Northern railroads formed complex networks, with multiple lines serving the same cities and most using the same gauge, facilitating easier transfers.