Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire

In the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire faced threats on numerous frontiers from multiple industrialised European powers as well as internal instabilities.^[1] Outsider influence, rise of nationalism and internal corruption demanded the Empire to look within itself and modernise. Kickstarting a period of internal reforms to centralize and standardise governance; European style training regimens for the military, standardized law codes and reformed property laws were initiated to better collect taxes and control the resources within the borders ^[2] The period of these reforms is known as the Tanzimat starting in 1839.^[3]

Despite the Ottoman empire's precarious international position, the central state was significantly strengthened.^{[citation needed]} The process of reforming and modernization in the empire began with the declaration of the Nizam-I Cedid (New Order) during the reign of Sultan Selim III and was punctuated by several reform decrees, such as the Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane in 1839 and the Hatt-ı Hümayun in 1856.^{[citation needed]} Over the course of the 19th century, the Ottoman state became increasingly powerful and rationalized, exercising a greater degree of influence over its population than in any previous era.^[4]

Despite these attempts at revitalisation, the empire could not stem the rising tide of nationalism, especially among the ethnic minorities in its Balkan provinces, where the newly implemented administrative and infrastructural reforms often intensified local tensions and nationalist movements rather than alleviating them. Numerous revolts and wars of independence, together with repeated incursions by Russia in the northeast and France (and later Britain) in the North African eyalets, resulted in a steady loss of territories throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries.^{[citation needed]}

By 1908, the Ottoman military became modernized and professionalized along the lines of Western European armies.^{[citation needed]} The period was followed by the defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922).^{[citation needed]}

^ Anderson, Betty S. (2016). A history of the modern Middle East: rulers, rebels, and rogues. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-8324-8.
^ Anderson, Betty S. (2016). A History of the Modern Middle East Rulers, Rebels, and Rogues. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press. pp. 59–61. ISBN 9780804798754.
^ Anderson, Betty S. (2016). A History of the Modern Middle East Rulers, Rebels, and Rogues. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University. pp. 81–82. ISBN 9780804798754.
^ Quataert, Donald (1994). "The Age of Reforms, 1812-1914". In İnalcık, Halil; Donald Quataert (eds.). An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1914. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 762. ISBN 0-521-57456-0.

[1] Anderson, Betty S. (2016). A history of the modern Middle East: rulers, rebels, and rogues. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-8324-8.

[2] Anderson, Betty S. (2016). A History of the Modern Middle East Rulers, Rebels, and Rogues. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press. pp. 59–61. ISBN 9780804798754.

[3] Anderson, Betty S. (2016). A History of the Modern Middle East Rulers, Rebels, and Rogues. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University. pp. 81–82. ISBN 9780804798754.

[4] Quataert, Donald (1994). "The Age of Reforms, 1812-1914". In İnalcık, Halil; Donald Quataert (eds.). An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1914. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 762. ISBN 0-521-57456-0.

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Part of a series on the
History of the Ottoman Empire

Timeline (Territorial evolution)
Rise (1299–1453) Beylik of Osman Interregnum (1402–1413) Fall of Constantinople
Classical Age (1453–1566) Sultanate of Women (1533–1656)
Transformation (1566–1703) Köprülü Era (1656–1703)
Old Regime (1703–1789) Tulip Era (1718–1730)
Decline & Modernization (1789–1908) Nizam-i Djedid (late 18th and early 19th) Tanzimat Era (1839–1876) 1st Constitutional Era (1876–1878)
Dissolution (1908–1922) 2nd Constitutional Era (1908–1920) World War I (1914–1918) Partitioning (1918–1922) Abolition of the Sultanate (1922) Abolition of the Caliphate (1924)
Historiography (Ghaza, Decline)
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