Dynasties of China

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For most of its history, China was organized into various dynastic states under the rule of hereditary monarchs. Beginning with the establishment of dynastic rule by Yu the Great c. 2070 BC, and ending with the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor in AD 1912, Chinese historiography came to organize itself around the succession of monarchical dynasties.^[a]^[b] Besides those established by the dominant Han ethnic group or its spiritual Huaxia predecessors, dynasties throughout Chinese history were also founded by non-Han peoples.^[6]

Dividing Chinese history into dynastic epochs is a convenient and conventional method of periodization.^[7] Accordingly, a dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which a family reigned, as well as to describe events, trends, personalities, artistic compositions, and artifacts of that period.^[8] For example, porcelain made during the Ming dynasty may be referred to as "Ming porcelain".^[9]

The longest-reigning orthodox dynasty of China was the Zhou dynasty, ruling for a total length of about 790 years, albeit it is divided into the Western Zhou and the Eastern Zhou in Chinese historiography.^[10] The largest orthodox Chinese dynasty in terms of territorial size was either the Yuan dynasty or the Qing dynasty, depending on the historical source.^[11]^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]^[c]

The term "Tiāncháo" (天朝; "Celestial Dynasty" or "Heavenly Dynasty") was frequently employed as a self-reference by Chinese dynasties.^[19]^[20] As a form of respect and subordination, Chinese tributary states referred to these dynasties as "Tiāncháo Shàngguó" (天朝上國; "Celestial Dynasty of the Exalted State") or "Tiāncháo Dàguó" (天朝大國; "Celestial Dynasty of the Great State").

^ Nadeau, Randall (2012). The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions. p. 31. ISBN 9781444361971.
^ Yeo, Khiok-Khng (2008). Musing with Confucius and Paul: Toward a Chinese Christian Theology. p. 24. ISBN 9780227903308.
^ Chao, Yuan-ling (2009). Medicine and Society in Late Imperial China: A Study of Physicians in Suzhou, 1600–1850. p. 73. ISBN 9781433103810.
^ Wang, Shumin (2002). "夏、商、周之前还有个虞朝". Hebei Academic Journal. 22 (1): 146–147. Retrieved 20 August 2020.
^ "远古时期的"古唐朝"？比夏朝还早1600年，如被证实历史或将改写". Retrieved 21 June 2022.
^ Skutsch, Carl (2013). Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. p. 287. ISBN 9781135193881.
^ Keay, John (2010). China: A History. ISBN 9780007372089.
^ Wang, Yeyang; Zhao, Qingyun (2016). 当代中国近代史理论研究. ISBN 9787516188231.
^ Atwell, William (1978). "Ming China and the Emerging World Economy". In Twitchett, Denis; Fairbank, John; Mote, Frederick (eds.). The Cambridge History of China. pp. 394–395. ISBN 9780521243339.
^ Sadow, Lauren; Peeters, Bert; Mullan, Kerry (2019). Studies in Ethnopragmatics, Cultural Semantics, and Intercultural Communication: Minimal English (and Beyond). p. 100. ISBN 9789813299795.
^ Bauch, Martin; Schenk, Gerrit (2019). The Crisis of the 14th Century: Teleconnections between Environmental and Societal Change?. p. 153. ISBN 9783110660784.
^ Ruan, Jiening; Zhang, Jie; Leung, Cynthia (2015). Chinese Language Education in the United States. p. 9. ISBN 9783319213088.
^ Wei, Chao-hsin (1988). The General Themes of the Ocean Culture World. p. 17.
^ Adler, Philip; Pouwels, Randall (2011). World Civilizations: Volume I: To 1700. p. 373. ISBN 9781133171065.
^ Rowe, William (2010). China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. p. 1. ISBN 9780674054554.
^ Robinson, David (2019). In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire: Ming China and Eurasia. p. 50. ISBN 9781108482448.
^ Robinson, David (2009). Empire's Twilight: Northeast Asia Under the Mongols. p. 293. ISBN 9780674036086.
^ Brook, Timothy; Walt van Praag, Michael van; Boltjes, Miek (2018). Sacred Mandates: Asian International Relations since Chinggis Khan. p. 45. ISBN 9780226562933.
^ Nevius, John (1869). China and the Chinese. p. 22. ISBN 9788120606906.
^ Wang, Hongsheng (2007). 历史的瀑布与峡谷：中华文明的文化结构和现代转型. p. 139. ISBN 9787300081830.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

[TangYu1-1] Nadeau, Randall (2012). The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions. p. 31. ISBN 9781444361971.

[TangYu2-2] Yeo, Khiok-Khng (2008). Musing with Confucius and Paul: Toward a Chinese Christian Theology. p. 24. ISBN 9780227903308.

[TangYu3-3] Chao, Yuan-ling (2009). Medicine and Society in Late Imperial China: A Study of Physicians in Suzhou, 1600–1850. p. 73. ISBN 9781433103810.

[TangYu4-4] Wang, Shumin (2002). "夏、商、周之前还有个虞朝". Hebei Academic Journal. 22 (1): 146–147. Retrieved 20 August 2020.

[TangYu5-5] "远古时期的"古唐朝"？比夏朝还早1600年，如被证实历史或将改写". Retrieved 21 June 2022.

[EthnicOrigin-8] Skutsch, Carl (2013). Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. p. 287. ISBN 9781135193881.

[Periodization1-9] Keay, John (2010). China: A History. ISBN 9780007372089.

[Periodization2-10] Wang, Yeyang; Zhao, Qingyun (2016). 当代中国近代史理论研究. ISBN 9787516188231.

[Periodization3-11] Atwell, William (1978). "Ming China and the Emerging World Economy". In Twitchett, Denis; Fairbank, John; Mote, Frederick (eds.). The Cambridge History of China. pp. 394–395. ISBN 9780521243339.

[Longest-12] Sadow, Lauren; Peeters, Bert; Mullan, Kerry (2019). Studies in Ethnopragmatics, Cultural Semantics, and Intercultural Communication: Minimal English (and Beyond). p. 100. ISBN 9789813299795.

[Largest1-13] Bauch, Martin; Schenk, Gerrit (2019). The Crisis of the 14th Century: Teleconnections between Environmental and Societal Change?. p. 153. ISBN 9783110660784.

[Largest2-14] Ruan, Jiening; Zhang, Jie; Leung, Cynthia (2015). Chinese Language Education in the United States. p. 9. ISBN 9783319213088.

[Largest3-15] Wei, Chao-hsin (1988). The General Themes of the Ocean Culture World. p. 17.

[Largest4-16] Adler, Philip; Pouwels, Randall (2011). World Civilizations: Volume I: To 1700. p. 373. ISBN 9781133171065.

[Largest5-17] Rowe, William (2010). China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. p. 1. ISBN 9780674054554.

[GreatYuan1-18] Robinson, David (2019). In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire: Ming China and Eurasia. p. 50. ISBN 9781108482448.

[GreatYuan2-19] Robinson, David (2009). Empire's Twilight: Northeast Asia Under the Mongols. p. 293. ISBN 9780674036086.

[GreatYuan3-20] Brook, Timothy; Walt van Praag, Michael van; Boltjes, Miek (2018). Sacred Mandates: Asian International Relations since Chinggis Khan. p. 45. ISBN 9780226562933.

[Tianchao1-22] Nevius, John (1869). China and the Chinese. p. 22. ISBN 9788120606906.

[Tianchao2-23] Wang, Hongsheng (2007). 历史的瀑布与峡谷：中华文明的文化结构和现代转型. p. 139. ISBN 9787300081830.

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