History of philosophical pessimism

Philosophical pessimism is a philosophical school that is critical of existence, emphasizing the inherent suffering and futility of life. This perspective can be traced back to various religious traditions and philosophical writings throughout history. Pessimism, in this context, is not merely a negative psychological outlook, but a philosophical stance that questions the fundamental value or worth of existence.

Notable early expressions of pessimistic thought can be found in the works of ancient philosophers such as Hegesias of Cyrene, who lived in Greece during the 3rd century BCE and was known for his teachings on the benefits of suicide. In the Eastern philosophical tradition, the Indian texts of Buddhism, particularly the Four Noble Truths, which acknowledge the existence of suffering (duḥkha) as a fundamental aspect of life, also reflect a pessimistic worldview. These early expressions laid the groundwork for more systematic and articulated forms of pessimism that would emerge later.

The modern discourse on philosophical pessimism is significantly shaped by the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer. Schopenhauer's ideas in the 19th century articulated a systematic critique of philosophical optimism, which had dominated Western thought since the Enlightenment, particularly with figures such as Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Alexander Pope.

Schopenhauer's seminal work, "The World as Will and Representation," presents a despairing view of existence, arguing that reality is driven by an insatiable and ceaseless metaphysical force which he called Will (which manifests in living creatures as the will to life — or the instinct of self-preservation), and that the world is thus fundamentally a place of perpetual suffering and dissatisfaction. His pessimistic philosophy has had a profound impact on subsequent thinkers, artists, scientists, and many others; and continues to influence contemporary discussions on the meaning and value of life.

Following Schopenhauer, subsequent thinkers such as Emil Cioran and David Benatar further developed pessimistic thought and challenged optimistic stances. Emil Cioran, a 20th-century Romanian philosopher and essayist, is known for his bleak reflections on the human condition. His works, such as "On the Heights of Despair," delve into the themes of existence as an exile, skepticism towards historical and political progress, and the futility of human endeavors; all with a intensely lyrical tone. David Benatar, a contemporary South African philosopher, has further contributed to the modern discourse on pessimism through his books "Better Never to Have Been: The Harm of Coming into Existence" and The Human Predicament: A Candid Guide to Life's Biggest Questions". Benatar argues that coming into existence is always a net harm because it subjects individuals to a life filled with suffering and pain, even if it also contains moments of pleasure.