Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism

The evolution of human bipedalism, which began in primates approximately four million years ago,^[1] or as early as seven million years ago with Sahelanthropus,^[2]^[3] or approximately twelve million years ago with Danuvius guggenmosi, has led to morphological alterations to the human skeleton including changes to the arrangement, shape, and size of the bones of the foot, hip, knee, leg, and the vertebral column. These changes allowed for the upright gait to be overall more energy efficient in comparison to quadrupeds. The evolutionary factors that produced these changes have been the subject of several theories that correspond with environmental changes on a global scale.^[4]

^ Kondō S (1985). Primate morphophysiology, locomotor analyses, and human bipedalism. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press. ISBN 978-4-13-066093-8.^{[page needed]}
^ Daver, G.; Guy, F.; Mackaye, H. T.; Likius, A.; Boisserie, J. -R.; Moussa, A.; Pallas, L.; Vignaud, P.; Clarisse, N. D. (2022-08-24). "Postcranial evidence of late Miocene hominin bipedalism in Chad" (PDF). Nature. 609 (7925). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 94–100. Bibcode:2022Natur.609...94D. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04901-z. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 36002567. S2CID 234630242.
^ Staff (August 14, 2016). "What Does It Mean To Be Human? – Walking Upright". Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved August 14, 2016.
^ Ko KH (2015). "Origins of Bipedalism". Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology. 58 (6): 929–34. arXiv:1508.02739. doi:10.1590/S1516-89132015060399. S2CID 761213.

[Shiro-1] Kondō S (1985). Primate morphophysiology, locomotor analyses, and human bipedalism. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press. ISBN 978-4-13-066093-8.^{[page needed]}

[Daver_Guy_Mackaye_Likius_2022-2] Daver, G.; Guy, F.; Mackaye, H. T.; Likius, A.; Boisserie, J. -R.; Moussa, A.; Pallas, L.; Vignaud, P.; Clarisse, N. D. (2022-08-24). "Postcranial evidence of late Miocene hominin bipedalism in Chad" (PDF). Nature. 609 (7925). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 94–100. Bibcode:2022Natur.609...94D. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04901-z. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 36002567. S2CID 234630242.

[SI-2016biped-3] Staff (August 14, 2016). "What Does It Mean To Be Human? – Walking Upright". Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved August 14, 2016.

[4] Ko KH (2015). "Origins of Bipedalism". Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology. 58 (6): 929–34. arXiv:1508.02739. doi:10.1590/S1516-89132015060399. S2CID 761213.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]