Literal and figurative language

The distinction between literal and figurative language exists in all natural languages; the phenomenon is studied within certain areas of language analysis, in particular stylistics, rhetoric, and semantics.

Literal language is the usage of words exactly according to their direct, straightforward, or conventionally accepted meanings: their denotation.
Figurative (or non-literal) language is the usage of words in addition to, or deviating beyond, their conventionally accepted definitions^[1]^[2] in order to convey a more complex meaning or achieve a heightened effect.^[3] This is done by language-users presenting words in such a way that their audience equates, compares, or associates the words with normally unrelated meanings. A common intended effect of figurative language is to elicit audience responses that are especially emotional (like excitement, shock, laughter, etc.), aesthetic, or intellectual.

The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, and later the Roman rhetorician Quintilian, were among the early documented language analysts who expounded on the differences between literal and figurative language.^[4] A comprehensive scholarly examination of metaphor in antiquity, and the way its use was fostered by Homer's epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey, is provided by William Bedell Stanford, Greek Metaphor,^[5]

Frances Brooke's 1769 novel The History of Emily Montague was used in the earliest Oxford English Dictionary (OED) citation for the figurative sense of literally; the sentence from the novel used was: "He is a fortunate man to be introduced to such a party of fine women at his arrival; it is literally to feed among the lilies."^[6] This citation was also used in the OED's 2011 revision.^[6]

Within literary analysis, the terms "literal" and "figurative" are still used; but within the fields of cognition and linguistics, the basis for identifying such a distinction is no longer used.^[7]

^ Glucksberg, Sam (26 July 2001). Understanding Figurative Language: From Metaphor to Idioms. Oxford Psychology Series. New York: Oxford University Press. p. v. ISBN 9780198027126. Retrieved 5 February 2025. In figurative language, the intended meaning does not coincide with the literal meanings of the words and sentences that are used.
^ "Figurative language refers to words or phrases that are meaningful, but not literally true."
^ "Figure of speech." Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Merriam-Webster, Inc. 2015 "figure of speech [...]: a form of expression (such as a simile or metaphor) used to convey meaning or heighten effect often by comparing or identifying one thing with another that has a meaning or connotation familiar to the reader or listener".
^ M.H. Abrams; Geoffrey Harpham (2011). A Glossary of Literary Terms (10 ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0495898023.
^ W. Bedell Stanford, Greek Metaphor (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1936)
^ ^a ^b "Language Log » Frances Brooke, destroyer of English (Not literally)".
^ Nuessel, F. (2009). "Figurative Language: Semiotics". In Barber, Alex; Stainton, Robert J. (eds.). Concise Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Language and Linguistics. Elsevier. pp. 230–242. ISBN 978-0080965000. Retrieved 23 December 2012. Traditional scholars maintain a strict dichotomy between figurative language and ordinary or literal language. This conventional aesthetic sense of figurative language no longer reflects current usage. Today, the term 'metaphor' has replace 'figurative language' with the special sense of a cognitive device used to explain how people categorize reality and store abstractions of that physical existence in their brain. [...] The essence of the literal-figurative debate revolves around whether or not metaphor is a deviation from some pristine ordinary language or whether it is a basic form of linguistic expression.

[1] Glucksberg, Sam (26 July 2001). Understanding Figurative Language: From Metaphor to Idioms. Oxford Psychology Series. New York: Oxford University Press. p. v. ISBN 9780198027126. Retrieved 5 February 2025. In figurative language, the intended meaning does not coincide with the literal meanings of the words and sentences that are used.

[2] "Figurative language refers to words or phrases that are meaningful, but not literally true."

[3] "Figure of speech." Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Merriam-Webster, Inc. 2015 "figure of speech [...]: a form of expression (such as a simile or metaphor) used to convey meaning or heighten effect often by comparing or identifying one thing with another that has a meaning or connotation familiar to the reader or listener".

[4] M.H. Abrams; Geoffrey Harpham (2011). A Glossary of Literary Terms (10 ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0495898023.

[5] W. Bedell Stanford, Greek Metaphor (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1936)

[languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu-6] "Language Log » Frances Brooke, destroyer of English (Not literally)".

[BarberStainton2009-7] Nuessel, F. (2009). "Figurative Language: Semiotics". In Barber, Alex; Stainton, Robert J. (eds.). Concise Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Language and Linguistics. Elsevier. pp. 230–242. ISBN 978-0080965000. Retrieved 23 December 2012. Traditional scholars maintain a strict dichotomy between figurative language and ordinary or literal language. This conventional aesthetic sense of figurative language no longer reflects current usage. Today, the term 'metaphor' has replace 'figurative language' with the special sense of a cognitive device used to explain how people categorize reality and store abstractions of that physical existence in their brain. [...] The essence of the literal-figurative debate revolves around whether or not metaphor is a deviation from some pristine ordinary language or whether it is a basic form of linguistic expression.

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