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Nicotine constitutes approximately 0.6–3.0% of the dry weight of tobacco.[16] Nicotine is also present at ppb-concentrations in edible plants in the family Solanaceae, including potatoes, tomatoes, and eggplants,[17] though sources disagree on whether this has any biological significance to human consumers.[17] It functions as an antiherbivore toxin; consequently, nicotine was widely used as an insecticide in the past,[18][19] and neonicotinoids (structurally similar to nicotine), such as imidacloprid, are some of the most effective and widely used insecticides.
Nicotine is highly addictive.[20][21][22] Slow-release forms (gums and patches, when used correctly) can be less addictive and help in quitting.[23][24][25][26] Animal research suggests that monoamine oxidase inhibitors present in tobacco smoke may enhance nicotine's addictive properties.[27][28] An average cigarette yields about 2 mg of absorbed nicotine.[29]
The estimated lower dose limit for fatal outcomes is 500–1,000 mg of ingested nicotine for an adult (6.5–13 mg/kg).[27][29] Nicotine addiction involves drug-reinforced behavior, compulsive use, and relapse following abstinence.[30] Nicotine dependence involves tolerance, sensitization,[31]physical dependence, psychological dependence,[32] and can cause distress.[33][34] Nicotine withdrawal symptoms include depressed mood, stress, anxiety, irritability, difficulty concentrating, and sleep disturbances.[2] Mild nicotine withdrawal symptoms are measurable in unrestricted smokers, who experience normal moods only as their blood nicotine levels peak, with each cigarette.[35] On quitting, withdrawal symptoms worsen sharply, then gradually improve to a normal state.[35]
Nicotine use as a tool for quitting smoking has a good safety history.[36] Animal studies suggest that nicotine may adversely affect cognitive development in adolescence, but the relevance of these findings to human brain development is disputed.[37][27] At low amounts, it has a mild analgesic effect.[38] According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer, "nicotine is not generally considered to be a carcinogen."[39][40]
The Surgeon General of the United States indicates that evidence is inadequate to infer the presence or absence of a causal relationship between exposure to nicotine and risk for cancer.[41] Nicotine has been shown to produce birth defects in humans and is considered a teratogen.[42][43] The median lethal dose of nicotine in humans is unknown.[44] High doses are known to cause nicotine poisoning, organ failure, and death through paralysis of respiratory muscles,[41][45] though serious or fatal overdoses are rare.[46]
^ abNicotine. PubChem Compound Database. United States National Library of Medicine – National Center for Biotechnology Information. 16 February 2019. Retrieved 20 August 2024.
^Landoni JH. "Nicotine (PIM)". INCHEM. International Programme on Chemical Safety. Retrieved 29 January 2019.
^"Nicotine: Clinical data". IUPHAR/BPS Guide to Pharmacology. International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. Retrieved 20 August 2024. Used as an aid to smoking cessation and for the relief of nicotine withdrawal symptoms.
^Ujváry I (1999). "Nicotine and Other Insecticidal Alkaloids". In Yamamoto I, Casida J (eds.). Nicotinoid Insecticides and the Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor. Tokyo: Springer-Verlag. pp. 29–69.
^Miyasato K (March 2013). "[Psychiatric and psychological features of nicotine dependence]". Nihon Rinsho. Japanese Journal of Clinical Medicine. 71 (3): 477–81. PMID23631239.
^Cite error: The named reference Parrott2015 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Personal Habits and Indoor Combustions. Lyon (FR): International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012. (IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, No. 100E.) TOBACCO SMOKING. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK304395/
^Cite error: The named reference IARCCancerStatement was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ abCite error: The named reference SGUS2014 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^Kohlmeier KA (June 2015). "Nicotine during pregnancy: changes induced in neurotransmission, which could heighten proclivity to addict and induce maladaptive control of attention". Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease. 6 (3): 169–81. doi:10.1017/S2040174414000531. PMID25385318. S2CID29298949.
^"Nicotine". United States National Library of Medicine – Toxicology Data Network. Hazardous Substances Data Bank. 20 August 2009.
^Cite error: The named reference ECHA nicotine monograph was invoked but never defined (see the help page).