Parental experience, as well as changing hormone levels during pregnancy and postpartum, cause changes in the parental brain.[1] Displaying maternal sensitivity towards infant cues, processing those cues and being motivated to engage socially with her infant and attend to the infant's needs in any context could be described as mothering behavior and is regulated by many systems in the maternal brain.[2] Research has shown that hormones such as oxytocin, prolactin, estradiol and progesterone are essential for the onset and the maintenance of maternal behavior in rats, and other mammals as well.[3][4][5][6][7][8] Mothering behavior has also been classified within the basic drives (sexual desire, hunger and thirst, fear, power/dominance etc.).[9]
Less is known about the paternal brain, but changes in the father's brain occur alongside the mother. [1] Research on this topic is continuing to expand as more researchers examine fathers. Many of the brain regions and networks responsible for parental behavior are responsible for parental behavior in human fathers after having a child.[10] Changes in hormones, brain activation and brain structure (mainly changes in gray matter) are seen in both human mothers and fathers, with hormonal changes beginning in both males and females before the birth of their children, with changes continuing to develop after the birth of children.[11]
- ^ a b Leuner, B; Glasper, ER; Gould, E (October 2010). "Parenting and plasticity". Trends in Neurosciences. 33 (10): 465–73. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2010.07.003. PMC 3076301. PMID 20832872.
- ^ Barrett, Jennifer; Fleming, Alison S. (1 April 2011). "Annual Research Review: All mothers are not created equal: neural and psychobiological perspectives on mothering and the importance of individual differences". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 52 (4): 368–397. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02306.x. PMID 20925656.
- ^ Bridges, R (2008). Neurobiology of the parental brain. Amsterdam: Academic.
- ^ Bridges, R.S (1990). Endocrine regulation of parental behavior in rodents, Mammalian parenting: Biochemical, neurobiological and behavioral determinants. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 93–117.
- ^ Insel, T (1990). Oxytocin and maternal behavior, Mammalian parenting: biochemical, neurobiological and behavioral determinants. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 260–280.
- ^ Numan, M (January 2007). "Motivational systems and the neural circuitry of maternal behavior in the rat". Developmental Psychobiology. 49 (1): 12–21. doi:10.1002/dev.20198. PMID 17186513.
- ^ Pryce C.R; Martin RD; Skuse D (1995). Motherhood in human and nonhuman primates. New York: Karger.
- ^ Rosenblatt, JS; Olufowobi, A; Siegel, HI (April 1998). "Effects of pregnancy hormones on maternal responsiveness, responsiveness to estrogen stimulation of maternal behavior, and the lordosis response to estrogen stimulation". Hormones and Behavior. 33 (2): 104–14. doi:10.1006/hbeh.1998.1441. PMID 9647936. S2CID 38510815.
- ^ Sewards, TV; Sewards, MA (August 2002). "Fear and power-dominance drive motivation: neural representations and pathways mediating sensory and mnemonic inputs, and outputs to premotor structures". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 26 (5): 553–79. doi:10.1016/S0149-7634(02)00020-9. PMID 12367590. S2CID 25374502.
- ^ Provenzi, L.; Lindstedt, J.; De Coen, K.; Gasparini, L.; Peruzzo, D.; Grumi, S.; Arrigoni, F.; Ahlqvist-Björkroth, S. (2021). "The Paternal Brain in Action: A Review of Human Fathers' fMRI Brain Responses to Child-Related Stimuli". Brain Sciences. 11 (6): 816. doi:10.3390/brainsci11060816. PMC 8233834. PMID 34202946.
- ^ "First-time fathers show longitudinal gray matter cortical volume reductions: evidence from two international samples". academic.oup.com. Retrieved 11 September 2023.
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