Parenting

Parenting or child rearing promotes and supports the physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and educational development from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the intricacies of raising a child and not exclusively for a biological relationship.^[1]

The most common caretakers in parenting are the biological parents of the child in question. However, a caretaker may be an older sibling, step-parent, grandparent, legal guardian, aunt, uncle, other family members, or a family friend.^[2] Governments and society may also have a role in child-rearing or upbringing. In many cases, orphaned or abandoned children receive parental care from non-parent or non-blood relations. Others may be adopted, raised in foster care, or placed in an orphanage.

Parenting styles vary by historical period, culture, social class, personal preferences, and other social factors.^[3] There is not necessarily a single 'correct' parenting style for raising a child, since parenting styles can affect children differently depending on their circumstances and temperament.^[4] Additionally, research supports that parental history, both in terms of their own attachments and parental psychopathology, particularly in the wake of adverse experiences, can strongly influence parental sensitivity and child outcomes.^[5]^[6]^[7] Parenting may have long-term impacts on adoptive children as well, as recent research has shown that warm adoptive parenting is associated with reduced internalizing and externalizing problems of the adoptive children over time.^[8]

^ Jane B. Brooks (28 September 2012). The Process of Parenting: Ninth Edition. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 978-0-07-746918-4. For the legal definition of parenting and parenthood see: Haim Abraham, A Family Is What You Make It? Legal Recognition and Regulation of Multiple Parents (2017)
^ Bernstein, Robert (20 February 2008). "Majority of Children Live With Two Biological Parents". Archived from the original on 20 April 2008. Retrieved 26 March 2009.
^ JON., WITT (2017). SOC 2018 (5TH ed.). [S.l.]: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-1-259-70272-3. OCLC 968304061.
^ Kiff, Cara J.; Lengua, Liliana J.; Zalewski, Maureen (1 September 2011). "Nature and Nurturing: Parenting in the Context of Child Temperament". Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review. 14 (3): 251–301. doi:10.1007/s10567-011-0093-4. ISSN 1573-2827. PMC 3163750. PMID 21461681.
^ Schechter, D.S., & Willheim, E. (2009). Disturbances of attachment and parental psychopathology in early childhood. Infant and Early Childhood Mental Health Issue. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Clinics of North America, 18(3), 665-87.
^ Grienenberger, J., Kelly, K. & Slade, A. (2005). Maternal Reflective Functioning, Mother-Infant Affective Communication and Infant Attachment: Exploring The Link Between Mental States and Observed Caregiving. Attachment and Human Development, 7, 299-311.
^ Lieberman, A.F.; Padrón, E.; Van Horn, P.; Harris, W.W. (2005). "Angels in the nursery: The intergenerational transmission of benevolent parental influences". Infant Ment. Health J. 26 (6): 504–20. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.964.1341. doi:10.1002/imhj.20071. PMID 28682485.
^ Amy L. Paine, Oliver Perra, Rebecca Anthony, and Katherine H. Shelton (August 2021). "Charting the trajectories of adopted children's emotional and behavioral problems: The impact of early adversity and postadoptive parental warmth". Development and Psychopathology. 33 (3): 922–936. doi:10.1017/S0954579420000231. PMC 8374623. PMID 32366341.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[1] Jane B. Brooks (28 September 2012). The Process of Parenting: Ninth Edition. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 978-0-07-746918-4. For the legal definition of parenting and parenthood see: Haim Abraham, A Family Is What You Make It? Legal Recognition and Regulation of Multiple Parents (2017)

[2] Bernstein, Robert (20 February 2008). "Majority of Children Live With Two Biological Parents". Archived from the original on 20 April 2008. Retrieved 26 March 2009.

[3] JON., WITT (2017). SOC 2018 (5TH ed.). [S.l.]: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-1-259-70272-3. OCLC 968304061.

[4] Kiff, Cara J.; Lengua, Liliana J.; Zalewski, Maureen (1 September 2011). "Nature and Nurturing: Parenting in the Context of Child Temperament". Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review. 14 (3): 251–301. doi:10.1007/s10567-011-0093-4. ISSN 1573-2827. PMC 3163750. PMID 21461681.

[5] Schechter, D.S., & Willheim, E. (2009). Disturbances of attachment and parental psychopathology in early childhood. Infant and Early Childhood Mental Health Issue. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Clinics of North America, 18(3), 665-87.

[6] Grienenberger, J., Kelly, K. & Slade, A. (2005). Maternal Reflective Functioning, Mother-Infant Affective Communication and Infant Attachment: Exploring The Link Between Mental States and Observed Caregiving. Attachment and Human Development, 7, 299-311.

[7] Lieberman, A.F.; Padrón, E.; Van Horn, P.; Harris, W.W. (2005). "Angels in the nursery: The intergenerational transmission of benevolent parental influences". Infant Ment. Health J. 26 (6): 504–20. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.964.1341. doi:10.1002/imhj.20071. PMID 28682485.

[Paine-8] Amy L. Paine, Oliver Perra, Rebecca Anthony, and Katherine H. Shelton (August 2021). "Charting the trajectories of adopted children's emotional and behavioral problems: The impact of early adversity and postadoptive parental warmth". Development and Psychopathology. 33 (3): 922–936. doi:10.1017/S0954579420000231. PMC 8374623. PMID 32366341.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

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