Transitive verb

A transitive verb is a verb that accepts one or more objects, for example, 'to enjoy' in Donald enjoys music. This contrasts with intransitive verbs, which do not have objects, for example, 'to arise' in Donald arose.

Transitivity is traditionally thought of as a global property of a clause, by which activity is transferred from an agent to a patient.^[1]

Transitive verbs can be classified by the number of objects they require. Verbs that accept only two arguments, a subject and a single direct object, are monotransitive. Verbs that accept two objects, a direct object and an indirect object, are ditransitive,^[2] or less commonly bitransitive.^[3] An example of a ditransitive verb in English is the verb to give, which may feature a subject, an indirect object, and a direct object: John gave Mary the book.

Verbs that take three objects are tritransitive.^[4] In English a tritransitive verb features an indirect object, a direct object, and a prepositional phrase – as in I'll trade you this bicycle for your binoculars – or else a clause that behaves like an argument – as in I bet you a pound that he has forgotten.^[5] Not all descriptive grammars recognize tritransitive verbs.^[6]

A clause with a prepositional phrase that expresses a meaning similar to that usually expressed by an object may be called pseudo-transitive. For example, the Indonesian sentences Dia masuk sekolah ("He attended school") and Dia masuk ke sekolah ("He went into the school") have the same verb (masuk "enter"), but the first sentence has a direct object while the second has a prepositional phrase in its place.^[7] A clause with a direct object plus a prepositional phrase may be called pseudo-ditransitive, as in the Lakhota sentence Haŋpíkčeka kiŋ lená wé-čage ("I made those moccasins for him").^[8] Such constructions are sometimes called complex transitive. The category of complex transitives includes not only prepositional phrases but also dependent clauses, appositives, and other structures.^[9] There is some controversy regarding complex transitives and tritransitives; linguists disagree on the nature of the structures.

In contrast to transitive verbs, some verbs take zero objects. Verbs that do not require an object are called intransitive verbs. An example in modern English is the verb to arrive.

Verbs that can be used in an intransitive or transitive way are called ambitransitive verbs. In English, an example is the verb to eat; the sentences You eat (with an intransitive form) and You eat apples (a transitive form that has apples as the object) are both grammatical.

The concept of valency is related to transitivity. The valency of a verb considers all the arguments the verb takes, including both the subject and all of the objects. In contrast to valency, the transitivity of a verb only considers the objects. Subcategorization is roughly synonymous with valency, though they come from different theoretical traditions.

^ Hopper, Paul J; Thompson, Sandra A (June 1980). "Transitivity in grammar and discourse" (PDF). Language. 56 (2): 251–299. doi:10.1353/lan.1980.0017. S2CID 144215256. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2007-06-27. Retrieved 24 January 2016.
^ Kempen, Gerard; Harbusch, Karin (2004). "A corpus study into word order variation in German subordinate clauses: Animacy affects linearization independently of grammatical function assignment". In Thomas Pechmann; Christopher Habel (eds.). Multidisciplinary Approaches to Language Production. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 173–181. ISBN 978-3-11-017840-1. We distinguish two types of transitive clauses: those including only [a subject–direct object] pair are monotransitive; clauses containing [subject, direct object, and indirect object] are ditransitive.
^ Maslova, Elena (2007). "Reciprocals in Yukaghir languages". In Vladimir P. Nedjilkov (ed.). Reciprocal Constructions, Volume 1. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 1835–1863. ISBN 978-90-272-2983-0.
^ Kittila, Seppo (2007). "A typology of tritransitives: alignment types and motivations". Linguistics. 45 (3). Germany: Walter de Gruyter: 453–508. doi:10.1515/LING.2007.015. hdl:10138/136282. S2CID 53133279.
^ Mita, Ryohei (2009). "On tritransitive verbs". In J. Askedal; I. Roberts; T. Matsuchita; H. Hasegawa (eds.). Germanic Languages and Linguistic Universals. John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 121–142. ISBN 978-90-272-8768-7.
^ Narasimhan, Bhuvana; Eisenbeiß, Sonja; Brown, Penelope (2007). "'Two's company, more is a crowd': the linguistic encoding of multiple-participant events" (PDF). Linguistics. 45 (3). doi:10.1515/LING.2007.013. S2CID 55658350. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-07-20.
^ Stevens, Alan (1970). "Pseudo-transitive verbs in Indonesian". Indonesia. 9 (9): 67–72. doi:10.2307/3350622. hdl:1813/53485. JSTOR 3350622.
^ Esteban, Avelino Corral (2012). "A comparative analysis of three-place predicates in Lakhota within the RRG framework". Spanish Journal of Applied Linguistics. 25: 9–26.
^ Hampe, Beate (2011). "Discovering constructions by means of collostruction analysis: The English denominative construction". Cognitive Linguistics. 22 (2): 211–245. doi:10.1515/cogl.2011.009. S2CID 147402733.

[1] Hopper, Paul J; Thompson, Sandra A (June 1980). "Transitivity in grammar and discourse" (PDF). Language. 56 (2): 251–299. doi:10.1353/lan.1980.0017. S2CID 144215256. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2007-06-27. Retrieved 24 January 2016.

[2] Kempen, Gerard; Harbusch, Karin (2004). "A corpus study into word order variation in German subordinate clauses: Animacy affects linearization independently of grammatical function assignment". In Thomas Pechmann; Christopher Habel (eds.). Multidisciplinary Approaches to Language Production. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 173–181. ISBN 978-3-11-017840-1. We distinguish two types of transitive clauses: those including only [a subject–direct object] pair are monotransitive; clauses containing [subject, direct object, and indirect object] are ditransitive.

[3] Maslova, Elena (2007). "Reciprocals in Yukaghir languages". In Vladimir P. Nedjilkov (ed.). Reciprocal Constructions, Volume 1. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 1835–1863. ISBN 978-90-272-2983-0.

[4] Kittila, Seppo (2007). "A typology of tritransitives: alignment types and motivations". Linguistics. 45 (3). Germany: Walter de Gruyter: 453–508. doi:10.1515/LING.2007.015. hdl:10138/136282. S2CID 53133279.

[5] Mita, Ryohei (2009). "On tritransitive verbs". In J. Askedal; I. Roberts; T. Matsuchita; H. Hasegawa (eds.). Germanic Languages and Linguistic Universals. John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 121–142. ISBN 978-90-272-8768-7.

[6] Narasimhan, Bhuvana; Eisenbeiß, Sonja; Brown, Penelope (2007). "'Two's company, more is a crowd': the linguistic encoding of multiple-participant events" (PDF). Linguistics. 45 (3). doi:10.1515/LING.2007.013. S2CID 55658350. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-07-20.

[7] Stevens, Alan (1970). "Pseudo-transitive verbs in Indonesian". Indonesia. 9 (9): 67–72. doi:10.2307/3350622. hdl:1813/53485. JSTOR 3350622.

[8] Esteban, Avelino Corral (2012). "A comparative analysis of three-place predicates in Lakhota within the RRG framework". Spanish Journal of Applied Linguistics. 25: 9–26.

[9] Hampe, Beate (2011). "Discovering constructions by means of collostruction analysis: The English denominative construction". Cognitive Linguistics. 22 (2): 211–245. doi:10.1515/cogl.2011.009. S2CID 147402733.

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