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Mameluco

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Soldado mameluco a caballo (1810).

Los mamelucos (مملوك, en árabe: mamlūk, «poseído», participio pasivo del verbo ملك, malaka, en árabe «poseer», «tener algo en propiedad») eran miembros de uno de los ejércitos de esclavos establecidos durante la época abasí que más tarde se hicieron con el control político de varios estados musulmanes. Fueron mercenarios esclavizados, soldados esclavos y esclavos libertos no árabes, étnicamente diversos (en su mayoría de razas caucásicas y mongoloide y de origen eslavo, circasiano y, principalmente, turco, islamizados) e instruidos militarmente, a quienes se les asignaban labores militares y administrativas de alto rango, y que sirvieron en como soldados a las órdenes de los distintos califas abasíes, y luego a las de otras dinastías gobernantes árabes y otomanas en el mundo musulmán.[1]​[2]​[3]​[4]​[5]​Institucionalizados como factor de poder por los califas abasíes, los mamelucos a menudo utilizaron su posición dominante como líderes militares y hacedores de reyes a partir del siglo IX para fundar sus propios imperios. Los dos imperios más importantes fueron el Sultanato de Delhi (1206-1526), ​​que en ocasiones llegó a controlar casi toda la India, y el Sultanato mameluco de Egipto. Este último fue sometido por los otomanos en 1517—tras 267 años de existencia—pero los mamelucos permanecieron en Egipto como la élite gobernante local hasta la invasión de Napoleón en 1798 y su eliminación final a manos de Mehmet Alí (1811).

Si bien los mamelucos eran comprados como propiedad, su estatus estaba por encima de los esclavos comunes, a quienes no se les permitía portar armas ni realizar ciertas tareas.[6]​[7]​[8]​[9]​ En lugares como Egipto, desde la dinastía ayubí hasta la época de Mehmet Alí de Egipto, los mamelucos fueron considerados «verdaderos señores» y «verdaderos guerreros», con un estatus social superior al de la población general en Egipto y el Levante.[10]​ En cierto sentido, eran una suerte de mercenarios esclavizados.[6]​[7]​[8]​[9]​[11]​Con el tiempo, los mamelucos se convirtieron en una poderosa clase de caballeros militares en varias sociedades musulmanas controlada por gobernantes árabes dinásticos.[12]​[13]​[14]​[15]​[16]​

El uso de mamelucos como componente principal de los ejércitos musulmanes se convirtió en una característica distintiva de la civilización islámica ya en el siglo IX. La práctica fue iniciada en Bagdad por el califa abasí al-Muʿtaṣim (833-842), y pronto se extendió por todo el mundo musulmán, caracterizándose porque los soldados-esclavos explotaban el poder militar que se les había conferido para hacerse con el control de las autoridades políticas legítimas, a menudo sólo brevemente, pero a veces durante periodos asombrosamente largos. Así, poco después del reinado de al-Muʿtaṣim, el propio califato cayó víctima de generales mamelucos turcos, capaces de deponer o asesinar califas casi con impunidad. Aunque el califato se mantuvo como símbolo de autoridad legítima, el poder real lo ejercían los generales mamelucos, y para el siglo XIII, los mamelucos habían logrado establecer dinastías propias, tanto en Egipto como en la India, en las que los sultanes eran necesariamente hombres de origen esclavo o herederos de tales hombres.

El dominio mameluco más duradero fue la clase militar caballeresca del Egipto medieval, que se desarrolló a partir de las filas de soldados esclavos.[17]​[18]​[19]​[20]​ Originalmente, los mamelucos eran esclavos de origen túrquico de la estepa euroasiática,[17]​[18]​[19]​[20]​[21]​[22]​[23]​ pero la institución de la esclavitud militar se extendió para incluir a circasianos, abjasios, georgianos, armenios, rusos y húngaros, así como a pueblos de los Balcanes como albaneses, griegos y sudeslavos (ver Saqaliba). También reclutaron entre los egipcios.[22]​ El «fenómeno mameluco/ghulam»,[24]​ como el historiador David Ayalon denominó la creación de la clase guerrera específica,[25]​ fue de gran importancia política, durando casi 1.000 años, desde el siglo siglo IX hasta principios del siglo XIX.

Los mamelucos detentaron poder político y militar, particularmente en Egipto y Siria, pero también en el Imperio otomano, el Levante, Mesopotamia e India. En algunos casos, alcanzaron el rango de sultán, mientras que en otros ostentaron poder regional como emires o beys.[16]​ En particular, en Oriente Próximo, facciones mamelucas se apoderaron del sultanato centrado en Egipto y Siria, y lo controlaron como el Sultanato mameluco (1250-1517).[12]​[13]​[14]​[16]​ El sultanato mameluco derrotó al ilkanato en la batalla de Ain Yalut. Al momento de ser conquistado por los otomanos (1517) el sultanato mameluco se extendía por Palestina, Heyaz y Siria.[26]​ Este sultanato, que fue el más perdurable de todos los estados mamelucos hasta ese momento, fue fundado por una casta militar de caballeros, que surgió de las filas de soldados esclavos, que eran principalmente de origen túrquico, así como también había coptos, circasianos (cherqueses, adigueses, cabardinos), abjasios y georgianos

Anteriormente habían luchado contra los cruzados cristianos de Europa occidental entre 1154 y 1169 y entre 1213 y 1221, expulsándolos efectivamente de Egipto y el Levante. En 1302, el sultanato mameluco expulsó formalmente a los últimos cruzados del Levante, poniendo fin a la era de las Cruzadas.[15]​[27]​

Desde el punto de vista político, el término mameluco puede referirse a:

  1. ↑ Levanoni, Amalia (2010). «PART II: EGYPT AND SYRIA (ELEVENTH CENTURY UNTIL THE OTTOMAN CONQUEST) – The Mamlūks in Egypt and Syria: the Turkish Mamlūk sultanate (648–784/1250–1382) and the Circassian Mamlūk sultanate (784–923/1382–1517)». En Fierro, Maribel, ed. The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 2: The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries. Cambridge and New York City: Cambridge University Press. pp. 237-284. ISBN 978-1-139-05615-1. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521839570.010. «The Arabic term mamlūk literally means 'owned' or 'slave', and was used for the White Turkish slaves of Pagan origins, purchased from Central Asia and the Eurasian steppes by Muslim rulers to serve as soldiers in their armies. Mamlūk units formed an integral part of Muslim armies from the third/ninth century, and Mamlūk involvement in government became an increasingly familiar occurrence in the medieval Middle East. The road to absolute rule lay open before them in Egypt when the Mamlūk establishment gained military and political domination during the reign of the Ayyūbid ruler of Egypt, al-Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb (r. 637–47/1240–9).» 
  2. ↑ «Warrior kings: A look at the history of the Mamluks». The Report – Egypt 2012: The Guide. Oxford Business Group. 2012. pp. 332-334. Archivado desde el original el 25 de septiembre de 2020. Consultado el 1 de marzo de 2021. «The Mamluks, who descended from non-Arab slaves who were naturalised to serve and fight for ruling Arab dynasties, are revered as some of the greatest warriors the world has ever known. Although the word mamluk translates as "one who is owned", the Mamluk soldiers proved otherwise, gaining a powerful military standing in various Muslim societies, particularly in Egypt. They would also go on to hold political power for several centuries during a period known as the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt. [...] Before the Mamluks rose to power, there was a long history of slave soldiers in the Middle East, with many recruited into Arab armies by the Abbasid rulers of Baghdad in the ninth century. The tradition was continued by the dynasties that followed them, including the Fatimids and Ayyubids (it was the Fatimids who built the foundations of what is now Islamic Cairo). For centuries, the rulers of the Arab world recruited men from the lands of the Caucasus and Central Asia. It is hard to discern the precise ethnic background of the Mamluks, given that they came from a number of ethnically mixed regions, but most are thought to have been Turkic (mainly Kipchak and Cuman) or from the Caucasus (predominantly Circassian, but also Armenian and Georgian). The Mamluks were recruited forcibly to reinforce the armies of Arab rulers. As outsiders, they had no local loyalties, and would thus fight for whoever owned them, not unlike mercenaries. Furthermore, the Turks and Circassians had a ferocious reputation as warriors. The slaves were either purchased or abducted as boys, around the age of 13, and brought to the cities, most notably to Cairo and its Citadel. Here they would be converted to Islam and would be put through a rigorous military training regime that focused particularly on horsemanship. A code of behaviour not too dissimilar to that of the European knights' Code of Chivalry was also inculcated and was known as Furusiyya. As in many military establishments to this day the authorities sought to instil an esprit de corps and a sense of duty among the young men. The Mamluks would have to live separately from the local populations in their garrisons, which included the Citadel and Rhoda Island, also in Cairo.» 
  3. ↑ Freamon, Bernard K. (2019). «The "Mamluk/Ghulam Phenomenon" – Slave Sultans, Soldiers, Eunuchs, and Concubines». En Freamon, Bernard K., ed. Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures. Studies in Global Slavery 8. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 219-244. ISBN 978-90-04-36481-3. S2CID 191690007. doi:10.1163/9789004398795_006. «Ibn Khaldun argued that in the midst of the decadence that became the hallmark of the later Abbasid Caliphate, providence restored the "glory and the unity" of the Islamic faith by sending the Mamluks: "loyal helpers, who were brought from the House of War to the House of Islam under the rule of slavery, which hides in itself a divine blessing." His expression of the idea that slavery, considered to be a degrading social condition to be avoided at all costs, might contain "a divine blessing", was the most articulate expression of Muslim thinking on slavery since the early days of Islam. Ibn Khaldun's general observation about the paradoxical nature of slavery brings to mind Hegel's reflections on the subject some five hundred years later. The great philosopher observed that, in many instances, it is the slave who ultimately gains the independent consciousness and power to become the actual master of his or her owner. The Mamluk/Ghulam Phenomenon is a good historical example of this paradox.» 
  4. ↑ Stowasser, Karl (1984). «Manners and Customs at the Mamluk Court». Muqarnas (Leiden: Brill Publishers) 2 (The Art of the Mamluks): 13-20. ISSN 0732-2992. JSTOR 1523052. S2CID 191377149. doi:10.2307/1523052. «The Mamluk slave warriors, with an empire extending from Libya to the Euphrates, from Cilicia to the Arabian Sea and the Sudan, remained for the next two hundred years the most formidable power of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean – champions of Sunni orthodoxy, guardians of Islam's holy places, their capital, Cairo, the seat of the Sunni caliph and a magnet for scholars, artists, and craftsmen uprooted by the Mongol upheaval in the East or drawn to it from all parts of the Muslim world by its wealth and prestige. Under their rule, Egypt passed through a period of prosperity and brilliance unparalleled since the days of the Ptolemies. [...] They ruled as a military aristocracy, aloof and almost totally isolated from the native population, Muslim and non-Muslim alike, and their ranks had to be replenished in each generation through fresh imports of slaves from abroad. Only those who had grown up outside Muslim territory and who entered as slaves in the service either of the sultan himself or of one of the Mamluk emirs were eligible for membership and careers within their closed military caste. The offspring of Mamluks were free-born Muslims and hence excluded from the system: they became the awlād al-nās, the "sons of respectable people", who either fulfilled scribal and administrative functions or served as commanders of the non-Mamluk ḥalqa troops. Some two thousand slaves were imported annually: Qipchaq, Azeris, Uzbec Turks, Mongols, Avars, Circassians, Georgians, Armenians, Greeks, Bulgars, Albanians, Serbs, Hungarians.» 
  5. ↑ Poliak, A. N. (2005). «The Influence of C̱ẖingiz-Ḵẖān's Yāsa upon the General Organization of the Mamlūk State». En Hawting, Gerald R., ed. Muslims, Mongols, and Crusaders: An Anthology of Articles Published in the "Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London (en inglés) 10 (4). London and New York City: Routledge (publicado el 1942). pp. 27-41. ISBN 978-0-7007-1393-6. JSTOR 609130. S2CID 155480831. doi:10.1017/S0041977X0009008X. Archivado desde el original|urlarchivo= requiere |url= (ayuda) el 2 de enero de 2024. Consultado el 1 de marzo de 2021. 
  6. ↑ a b Levanoni, Amalia (2010). «PART II: EGYPT AND SYRIA (ELEVENTH CENTURY UNTIL THE OTTOMAN CONQUEST) – The Mamlūks in Egypt and Syria: the Turkish Mamlūk sultanate (648–784/1250–1382) and the Circassian Mamlūk sultanate (784–923/1382–1517)». En Fierro, Maribel, ed. The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 2: The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries. Cambridge and New York City: Cambridge University Press. pp. 237-284. ISBN 978-1-139-05615-1. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521839570.010. «The Arabic term mamlūk literally means 'owned' or 'slave', and was used for the White Turkish slaves of Pagan origins, purchased from Central Asia and the Eurasian steppes by Muslim rulers to serve as soldiers in their armies. Mamlūk units formed an integral part of Muslim armies from the third/ninth century, and Mamlūk involvement in government became an increasingly familiar occurrence in the medieval Middle East. The road to absolute rule lay open before them in Egypt when the Mamlūk establishment gained military and political domination during the reign of the Ayyūbid ruler of Egypt, al-Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb (r. 637–47/1240–9).» 
  7. ↑ a b «Warrior kings: A look at the history of the Mamluks». The Report – Egypt 2012: The Guide. Oxford Business Group. 2012. pp. 332-334. Archivado desde el original el 25 de septiembre de 2020. Consultado el 1 de marzo de 2021. «The Mamluks, who descended from non-Arab slaves who were naturalised to serve and fight for ruling Arab dynasties, are revered as some of the greatest warriors the world has ever known. Although the word mamluk translates as "one who is owned", the Mamluk soldiers proved otherwise, gaining a powerful military standing in various Muslim societies, particularly in Egypt. They would also go on to hold political power for several centuries during a period known as the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt. [...] Before the Mamluks rose to power, there was a long history of slave soldiers in the Middle East, with many recruited into Arab armies by the Abbasid rulers of Baghdad in the ninth century. The tradition was continued by the dynasties that followed them, including the Fatimids and Ayyubids (it was the Fatimids who built the foundations of what is now Islamic Cairo). For centuries, the rulers of the Arab world recruited men from the lands of the Caucasus and Central Asia. It is hard to discern the precise ethnic background of the Mamluks, given that they came from a number of ethnically mixed regions, but most are thought to have been Turkic (mainly Kipchak and Cuman) or from the Caucasus (predominantly Circassian, but also Armenian and Georgian). The Mamluks were recruited forcibly to reinforce the armies of Arab rulers. As outsiders, they had no local loyalties, and would thus fight for whoever owned them, not unlike mercenaries. Furthermore, the Turks and Circassians had a ferocious reputation as warriors. The slaves were either purchased or abducted as boys, around the age of 13, and brought to the cities, most notably to Cairo and its Citadel. Here they would be converted to Islam and would be put through a rigorous military training regime that focused particularly on horsemanship. A code of behaviour not too dissimilar to that of the European knights' Code of Chivalry was also inculcated and was known as Furusiyya. As in many military establishments to this day the authorities sought to instil an esprit de corps and a sense of duty among the young men. The Mamluks would have to live separately from the local populations in their garrisons, which included the Citadel and Rhoda Island, also in Cairo.» 
  8. ↑ a b «Mamluk». Encyclopædia Britannica. Edinburgh: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 11 de febrero de 2023. Archivado desde el original el 21 de enero de 2016. Consultado el 4 de abril de 2023. «Mamluk, also spelled Mameluke, slave soldier, a member of one of the armies of slaves established during the Abbasid era that later won political control of several Muslim states. Under the Ayyubid sultanate, Mamluk generals used their power to establish a dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517. The name is derived from an Arabic word for slave. The use of Mamluks as a major component of Muslim armies became a distinct feature of Islamic civilization as early as the 9th century CE. The practice was begun in Baghdad by the ʿAbbasid caliph al-Muʿtaṣim (833–842), and it soon spread throughout the Muslim world.» 
  9. ↑ a b Richards, Donald S. (1998). «Chapter 3: Mamluk amirs and their families and households». En Philipp, Thomas; Haarmann, Ulrich, eds. The Mamluks in Egyptian Politics and Society. Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization (en inglés). Cambridge and New York City: Cambridge University Press. pp. 32-54. ISBN 978-0-521-03306-0. Archivado desde el original|urlarchivo= requiere |url= (ayuda) el 4 de abril de 2023. Consultado el 4 de abril de 2023. 
  10. ↑ Stowasser, Karl (1984). «Manners and Customs at the Mamluk Court». Muqarnas (Leiden: Brill Publishers) 2 (The Art of the Mamluks): 13-20. ISSN 0732-2992. JSTOR 1523052. S2CID 191377149. doi:10.2307/1523052. «The Mamluk slave warriors, with an empire extending from Libya to the Euphrates, from Cilicia to the Arabian Sea and the Sudan, remained for the next two hundred years the most formidable power of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean – champions of Sunni orthodoxy, guardians of Islam's holy places, their capital, Cairo, the seat of the Sunni caliph and a magnet for scholars, artists, and craftsmen uprooted by the Mongol upheaval in the East or drawn to it from all parts of the Muslim world by its wealth and prestige. Under their rule, Egypt passed through a period of prosperity and brilliance unparalleled since the days of the Ptolemies. [...] They ruled as a military aristocracy, aloof and almost totally isolated from the native population, Muslim and non-Muslim alike, and their ranks had to be replenished in each generation through fresh imports of slaves from abroad. Only those who had grown up outside Muslim territory and who entered as slaves in the service either of the sultan himself or of one of the Mamluk emirs were eligible for membership and careers within their closed military caste. The offspring of Mamluks were free-born Muslims and hence excluded from the system: they became the awlād al-nās, the "sons of respectable people", who either fulfilled scribal and administrative functions or served as commanders of the non-Mamluk ḥalqa troops. Some two thousand slaves were imported annually: Qipchaq, Azeris, Uzbec Turks, Mongols, Avars, Circassians, Georgians, Armenians, Greeks, Bulgars, Albanians, Serbs, Hungarians.» 
  11. ↑ Behrens-Abouseif, Doris. Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and Its Culture. New York: Macmillan, 2008.
  12. ↑ a b Levanoni, Amalia (2010). «PART II: EGYPT AND SYRIA (ELEVENTH CENTURY UNTIL THE OTTOMAN CONQUEST) – The Mamlūks in Egypt and Syria: the Turkish Mamlūk sultanate (648–784/1250–1382) and the Circassian Mamlūk sultanate (784–923/1382–1517)». En Fierro, Maribel, ed. The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 2: The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries. Cambridge and New York City: Cambridge University Press. pp. 237-284. ISBN 978-1-139-05615-1. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521839570.010. «The Arabic term mamlūk literally means 'owned' or 'slave', and was used for the White Turkish slaves of Pagan origins, purchased from Central Asia and the Eurasian steppes by Muslim rulers to serve as soldiers in their armies. Mamlūk units formed an integral part of Muslim armies from the third/ninth century, and Mamlūk involvement in government became an increasingly familiar occurrence in the medieval Middle East. The road to absolute rule lay open before them in Egypt when the Mamlūk establishment gained military and political domination during the reign of the Ayyūbid ruler of Egypt, al-Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb (r. 637–47/1240–9).» 
  13. ↑ a b «Warrior kings: A look at the history of the Mamluks». The Report – Egypt 2012: The Guide. Oxford Business Group. 2012. pp. 332-334. Archivado desde el original el 25 de septiembre de 2020. Consultado el 1 de marzo de 2021. «The Mamluks, who descended from non-Arab slaves who were naturalised to serve and fight for ruling Arab dynasties, are revered as some of the greatest warriors the world has ever known. Although the word mamluk translates as "one who is owned", the Mamluk soldiers proved otherwise, gaining a powerful military standing in various Muslim societies, particularly in Egypt. They would also go on to hold political power for several centuries during a period known as the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt. [...] Before the Mamluks rose to power, there was a long history of slave soldiers in the Middle East, with many recruited into Arab armies by the Abbasid rulers of Baghdad in the ninth century. The tradition was continued by the dynasties that followed them, including the Fatimids and Ayyubids (it was the Fatimids who built the foundations of what is now Islamic Cairo). For centuries, the rulers of the Arab world recruited men from the lands of the Caucasus and Central Asia. It is hard to discern the precise ethnic background of the Mamluks, given that they came from a number of ethnically mixed regions, but most are thought to have been Turkic (mainly Kipchak and Cuman) or from the Caucasus (predominantly Circassian, but also Armenian and Georgian). The Mamluks were recruited forcibly to reinforce the armies of Arab rulers. As outsiders, they had no local loyalties, and would thus fight for whoever owned them, not unlike mercenaries. Furthermore, the Turks and Circassians had a ferocious reputation as warriors. The slaves were either purchased or abducted as boys, around the age of 13, and brought to the cities, most notably to Cairo and its Citadel. Here they would be converted to Islam and would be put through a rigorous military training regime that focused particularly on horsemanship. A code of behaviour not too dissimilar to that of the European knights' Code of Chivalry was also inculcated and was known as Furusiyya. As in many military establishments to this day the authorities sought to instil an esprit de corps and a sense of duty among the young men. The Mamluks would have to live separately from the local populations in their garrisons, which included the Citadel and Rhoda Island, also in Cairo.» 
  14. ↑ a b «Mamluk». Encyclopædia Britannica. Edinburgh: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 11 de febrero de 2023. Archivado desde el original el 21 de enero de 2016. Consultado el 4 de abril de 2023. «Mamluk, also spelled Mameluke, slave soldier, a member of one of the armies of slaves established during the Abbasid era that later won political control of several Muslim states. Under the Ayyubid sultanate, Mamluk generals used their power to establish a dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517. The name is derived from an Arabic word for slave. The use of Mamluks as a major component of Muslim armies became a distinct feature of Islamic civilization as early as the 9th century CE. The practice was begun in Baghdad by the ʿAbbasid caliph al-Muʿtaṣim (833–842), and it soon spread throughout the Muslim world.» 
  15. ↑ a b Stowasser, Karl (1984). «Manners and Customs at the Mamluk Court». Muqarnas (Leiden: Brill Publishers) 2 (The Art of the Mamluks): 13-20. ISSN 0732-2992. JSTOR 1523052. S2CID 191377149. doi:10.2307/1523052. «The Mamluk slave warriors, with an empire extending from Libya to the Euphrates, from Cilicia to the Arabian Sea and the Sudan, remained for the next two hundred years the most formidable power of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean – champions of Sunni orthodoxy, guardians of Islam's holy places, their capital, Cairo, the seat of the Sunni caliph and a magnet for scholars, artists, and craftsmen uprooted by the Mongol upheaval in the East or drawn to it from all parts of the Muslim world by its wealth and prestige. Under their rule, Egypt passed through a period of prosperity and brilliance unparalleled since the days of the Ptolemies. [...] They ruled as a military aristocracy, aloof and almost totally isolated from the native population, Muslim and non-Muslim alike, and their ranks had to be replenished in each generation through fresh imports of slaves from abroad. Only those who had grown up outside Muslim territory and who entered as slaves in the service either of the sultan himself or of one of the Mamluk emirs were eligible for membership and careers within their closed military caste. The offspring of Mamluks were free-born Muslims and hence excluded from the system: they became the awlād al-nās, the "sons of respectable people", who either fulfilled scribal and administrative functions or served as commanders of the non-Mamluk ḥalqa troops. Some two thousand slaves were imported annually: Qipchaq, Azeris, Uzbec Turks, Mongols, Avars, Circassians, Georgians, Armenians, Greeks, Bulgars, Albanians, Serbs, Hungarians.» 
  16. ↑ a b c Richards, Donald S. (1998). «Chapter 3: Mamluk amirs and their families and households». En Philipp, Thomas; Haarmann, Ulrich, eds. The Mamluks in Egyptian Politics and Society. Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization (en inglés). Cambridge and New York City: Cambridge University Press. pp. 32-54. ISBN 978-0-521-03306-0. Archivado desde el original|urlarchivo= requiere |url= (ayuda) el 4 de abril de 2023. Consultado el 4 de abril de 2023. 
  17. ↑ a b Levanoni, Amalia (2010). «PART II: EGYPT AND SYRIA (ELEVENTH CENTURY UNTIL THE OTTOMAN CONQUEST) – The Mamlūks in Egypt and Syria: the Turkish Mamlūk sultanate (648–784/1250–1382) and the Circassian Mamlūk sultanate (784–923/1382–1517)». En Fierro, Maribel, ed. The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 2: The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries. Cambridge and New York City: Cambridge University Press. pp. 237-284. ISBN 978-1-139-05615-1. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521839570.010. «The Arabic term mamlūk literally means 'owned' or 'slave', and was used for the White Turkish slaves of Pagan origins, purchased from Central Asia and the Eurasian steppes by Muslim rulers to serve as soldiers in their armies. Mamlūk units formed an integral part of Muslim armies from the third/ninth century, and Mamlūk involvement in government became an increasingly familiar occurrence in the medieval Middle East. The road to absolute rule lay open before them in Egypt when the Mamlūk establishment gained military and political domination during the reign of the Ayyūbid ruler of Egypt, al-Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb (r. 637–47/1240–9).» 
  18. ↑ a b «Warrior kings: A look at the history of the Mamluks». The Report – Egypt 2012: The Guide. Oxford Business Group. 2012. pp. 332-334. Archivado desde el original el 25 de septiembre de 2020. Consultado el 1 de marzo de 2021. «The Mamluks, who descended from non-Arab slaves who were naturalised to serve and fight for ruling Arab dynasties, are revered as some of the greatest warriors the world has ever known. Although the word mamluk translates as "one who is owned", the Mamluk soldiers proved otherwise, gaining a powerful military standing in various Muslim societies, particularly in Egypt. They would also go on to hold political power for several centuries during a period known as the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt. [...] Before the Mamluks rose to power, there was a long history of slave soldiers in the Middle East, with many recruited into Arab armies by the Abbasid rulers of Baghdad in the ninth century. The tradition was continued by the dynasties that followed them, including the Fatimids and Ayyubids (it was the Fatimids who built the foundations of what is now Islamic Cairo). For centuries, the rulers of the Arab world recruited men from the lands of the Caucasus and Central Asia. It is hard to discern the precise ethnic background of the Mamluks, given that they came from a number of ethnically mixed regions, but most are thought to have been Turkic (mainly Kipchak and Cuman) or from the Caucasus (predominantly Circassian, but also Armenian and Georgian). The Mamluks were recruited forcibly to reinforce the armies of Arab rulers. As outsiders, they had no local loyalties, and would thus fight for whoever owned them, not unlike mercenaries. Furthermore, the Turks and Circassians had a ferocious reputation as warriors. The slaves were either purchased or abducted as boys, around the age of 13, and brought to the cities, most notably to Cairo and its Citadel. Here they would be converted to Islam and would be put through a rigorous military training regime that focused particularly on horsemanship. A code of behaviour not too dissimilar to that of the European knights' Code of Chivalry was also inculcated and was known as Furusiyya. As in many military establishments to this day the authorities sought to instil an esprit de corps and a sense of duty among the young men. The Mamluks would have to live separately from the local populations in their garrisons, which included the Citadel and Rhoda Island, also in Cairo.» 
  19. ↑ a b «Mamluk». Encyclopædia Britannica. Edinburgh: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 11 de febrero de 2023. Archivado desde el original el 21 de enero de 2016. Consultado el 4 de abril de 2023. «Mamluk, also spelled Mameluke, slave soldier, a member of one of the armies of slaves established during the Abbasid era that later won political control of several Muslim states. Under the Ayyubid sultanate, Mamluk generals used their power to establish a dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517. The name is derived from an Arabic word for slave. The use of Mamluks as a major component of Muslim armies became a distinct feature of Islamic civilization as early as the 9th century CE. The practice was begun in Baghdad by the ʿAbbasid caliph al-Muʿtaṣim (833–842), and it soon spread throughout the Muslim world.» 
  20. ↑ a b Stowasser, Karl (1984). «Manners and Customs at the Mamluk Court». Muqarnas (Leiden: Brill Publishers) 2 (The Art of the Mamluks): 13-20. ISSN 0732-2992. JSTOR 1523052. S2CID 191377149. doi:10.2307/1523052. «The Mamluk slave warriors, with an empire extending from Libya to the Euphrates, from Cilicia to the Arabian Sea and the Sudan, remained for the next two hundred years the most formidable power of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean – champions of Sunni orthodoxy, guardians of Islam's holy places, their capital, Cairo, the seat of the Sunni caliph and a magnet for scholars, artists, and craftsmen uprooted by the Mongol upheaval in the East or drawn to it from all parts of the Muslim world by its wealth and prestige. Under their rule, Egypt passed through a period of prosperity and brilliance unparalleled since the days of the Ptolemies. [...] They ruled as a military aristocracy, aloof and almost totally isolated from the native population, Muslim and non-Muslim alike, and their ranks had to be replenished in each generation through fresh imports of slaves from abroad. Only those who had grown up outside Muslim territory and who entered as slaves in the service either of the sultan himself or of one of the Mamluk emirs were eligible for membership and careers within their closed military caste. The offspring of Mamluks were free-born Muslims and hence excluded from the system: they became the awlād al-nās, the "sons of respectable people", who either fulfilled scribal and administrative functions or served as commanders of the non-Mamluk ḥalqa troops. Some two thousand slaves were imported annually: Qipchaq, Azeris, Uzbec Turks, Mongols, Avars, Circassians, Georgians, Armenians, Greeks, Bulgars, Albanians, Serbs, Hungarians.» 
  21. ↑ Poliak, A. N. (2005). «The Influence of C̱ẖingiz-Ḵẖān's Yāsa upon the General Organization of the Mamlūk State». En Hawting, Gerald R., ed. Muslims, Mongols, and Crusaders: An Anthology of Articles Published in the "Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 10 (4). London and New York City: Routledge. pp. 27-41. ISBN 978-0-7007-1393-6. JSTOR 609130. S2CID 155480831. doi:10.1017/S0041977X0009008X. Archivado desde el original|urlarchivo= requiere |url= (ayuda) el 2 de enero de 2024. Consultado el 1 de marzo de 2021.  Parámetro desconocido |orig-year= ignorado (ayuda)
  22. ↑ a b Richards, Donald S. (1998). «Chapter 3: Mamluk amirs and their families and households». En Philipp, Thomas; Haarmann, Ulrich, eds. The Mamluks in Egyptian Politics and Society. Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization (en inglés). Cambridge and New York City: Cambridge University Press. pp. 32-54. ISBN 978-0-521-03306-0. Archivado desde el original|urlarchivo= requiere |url= (ayuda) el 4 de abril de 2023. Consultado el 4 de abril de 2023. 
  23. ↑ Isichei, Elizabeth (1997). A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press. pp. 192. Consultado el 8 de noviembre de 2008. (requiere registro). 
  24. ↑ Freamon, Bernard K. (2019). «The "Mamluk/Ghulam Phenomenon" – Slave Sultans, Soldiers, Eunuchs, and Concubines». En Freamon, Bernard K., ed. Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures. Studies in Global Slavery 8. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 219-244. ISBN 978-90-04-36481-3. S2CID 191690007. doi:10.1163/9789004398795_006. «Ibn Khaldun argued that in the midst of the decadence that became the hallmark of the later Abbasid Caliphate, providence restored the "glory and the unity" of the Islamic faith by sending the Mamluks: "loyal helpers, who were brought from the House of War to the House of Islam under the rule of slavery, which hides in itself a divine blessing." His expression of the idea that slavery, considered to be a degrading social condition to be avoided at all costs, might contain "a divine blessing", was the most articulate expression of Muslim thinking on slavery since the early days of Islam. Ibn Khaldun's general observation about the paradoxical nature of slavery brings to mind Hegel's reflections on the subject some five hundred years later. The great philosopher observed that, in many instances, it is the slave who ultimately gains the independent consciousness and power to become the actual master of his or her owner. The Mamluk/Ghulam Phenomenon is a good historical example of this paradox.» 
  25. ↑ Ayalon, David (1979). The Mamlūk military society. Variorum Reprints. ISBN 978-0-86078-049-6. 
  26. ↑ Mamlūk
  27. ↑ Asbridge, Thomas. «The Crusades Episode 3». BBC. Archivado desde el original el 3 de febrero de 2012. Consultado el 5 de febrero de 2012. 

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