Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī
Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī
نصیرالدین طوسی
	Iranian stamp for the 700th anniversary of his death
Title	Khawaja Nasir
Personal
Born	18 February 1201 ; Tus, Khurasan, Khwarazmid Empire
Died	26 June 1274 (aged 73) ; Al-Kadhimiya Mosque, Kadhimiya, Baghdad, Ilkhanate
Religion	Islam
Era	Islamic Golden Age
Region	Persia (Iran)
Denomination	Shia
Jurisprudence	Ja'fari
Creed	Ismai'ili (Initially); Twelver
Main interest(s)	Kalam, Islamic Philosophy, Astronomy, Mathematics, Biology and Medicine, Physics, Science
Notable idea(s)	Spherical trigonometry, Tusi couple
Notable work(s)	Tajrid al-I'tiqad, Zij-i ilkhani, Rawḍa-yi Taslīm, Akhlaq-i-Nasri, al-Risalah al-Asturlabiyah, Al-Tadhkirah fi 'Ilm al-Hay'ah (Memoir on the Science of Astronomy)
Teachers	Kamal al-Din Yunus
Muslim leader
	Students Shams al-Din al-Bukhari;
	Influenced by Avicenna, Fakhr al-Din Razi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi, Siraj Qumri;
	Influenced Maitham Al Bahrani, ibn Khaldun, Qutb al-Din Shirazi, Ibn al-Shatir, Copernicus;

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Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Tusi (1201 – 1274),^[a] also known as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi^[5] (Arabic: نصیر الدین الطوسی; Persian: نصیر الدین طوسی) or simply as (al-)Tusi, was a Persian polymath, architect, philosopher, physician, scientist, and theologian.^[6] Nasir al-Din al-Tusi was a well published author, writing on subjects of math, engineering, prose, and mysticism. Additionally, al-Tusi made several scientific advancements. In astronomy, al-Tusi created very accurate tables of planetary motion, an updated planetary model, and critiques of Ptolemaic astronomy. He also made strides in logic, mathematics but especially trigonometry, biology, and chemistry. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi left behind a great legacy as well. Tusi is widely regarded as one of the greatest scientists of medieval Islam,^[7] since he is often considered the creator of trigonometry as a mathematical discipline in its own right.^[8]^[9]^[10] The Muslim scholar Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) considered Tusi to be the greatest of the later Persian scholars.^[11] There is also reason to believe that he may have influenced Copernican heliocentrism.^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16]^[17]

^ Cite error: The named reference MacT was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Cooper, John (1998). "al-Tusi, Khwajah Nasir (1201-74)". Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge.
^ Shams al‐Dīn al‐Bukhārī at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
^ "ṬUSI, NAṢIR-AL-DIN i. Biography". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 2018-08-05.
^ Lameer, Joep (2015). The Arabic Version of Ṭūsī's Nasirean Ethics. Brill. ISBN 978-9004304505.
^
Multiple sources:
- Bennison, Amira K. (2009). The great caliphs : the golden age of the 'Abbasid Empire. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 204. ISBN 978-0-300-15227-2. Hulegu killed the last 'Abbasid caliph but also patronized the foundation of a new observatory at Maragha in Azerbayjan at the instigation of the Persian Shi'i polymath Nasir al-Din Tusi.
- Goldschmidt, Arthur; Boum, Aomar (2015). A Concise History of the Middle East. Avalon Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8133-4963-3. Hulegu, contrite at the damage he had wrought, patronized the great Persian scholar, Nasiruddin Tusi (died 1274), who saved the lives of many other scientists and artists, accumulated a library of 400000 volumes, and built an astronomical ...
- Bar Hebraeus; Joosse, Nanne Pieter George (2004). A Syriac Encyclopaedia of Aristotelian Philosophy: Barhebraeus (13th C.), Butyrum Sapientiae, Books of Ethics, Economy, and Politics : a Critical Edition, with Introduction, Translation, Commentary, and Glossaries. Brill. p. 11. ISBN 978-90-04-14133-9. the Persian scholar Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī
- Seyyed Hossein Nasr (2006). Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present: Philosophy in the Land of Prophecy. State University of New York Press. p. 167. ISBN 978-0-7914-6800-5. In fact it was common among Persian Islamic philosophers to write few quatrains on the side often in the spirit of some of the poems of Khayyam singing about the impermanence of the world and its transience and similar themes. One needs to only recall the names of Ibn Sina, Suhrawardi, Nasir al-Din Tusi and Mulla Sadra, who wrote poems along with extensive prose works.
- Rodney Collomb, "The rise and fall of the Arab Empire and the founding of Western pre-eminence", Published by Spellmount, 2006. pg 127: "Khawaja Nasr ed-Din Tusi, the Persian, Khorasani, former chief scholar and scientist of"
- Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present: Philosophy in the Land of Prophecy, SUNY Press, 2006, ISBN 0-7914-6799-6. page 199
- Seyyed H. Badakhchani. Contemplation and Action: The Spiritual Autobiography of a Muslim Scholar: Nasir al-Din Tusi (In Association With the Institute of Ismaili Studies. I. B. Tauris (December 3, 1999). ISBN 1-86064-523-2. page.1: ""Nasir al-Din Abu Ja`far Muhammad b. Muhammad b. Hasan Tusi:, the renowned Persian astronomer, philosopher and theologian"
- Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven John; Wallis, Faith (2005). Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-96930-7. drawn by the Persian cosmographer al-Tusi.
- Laet, Sigfried J. de (1994). History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century. UNESCO. p. 908. ISBN 978-92-3-102813-7. the Persian astronomer and philosopher Nasir al-Din Tusi.
- Mirchandani, Vinnie (2010). The New Polymath: Profiles in Compound-Technology Innovations. John Wiley & Sons. p. 300. ISBN 978-0-470-76845-7. Nasir. al-Din. al-Tusi: Stay. Humble. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, the Persian polymath, talked about humility: "Anyone who does not know and does not know that he does not know is stuck forever in double ...
- Ṭūsī, Naṣīr al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad; Badakchani, S. J. (2005), Paradise of Submission: A Medieval Treatise on Ismaili Thought, Ismaili Texts and Translations, vol. 5, London: I.B. Tauris in association with Institute of Ismaili Studies, pp. 2–3, ISBN 1-86064-436-8
- Holt, P. M.; Lambton, Ann K. S.; Lewis, Bernard (1986). The Cambridge History of Islam Volume 2B, Islamic Society and Civilisation (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 585. ISBN 978-0-521-21949-5. secondly, some very great Shi'i thinkers who were ethnically Persian, such as the Isma'ilis, Abu Hatim Razi and Sijistani in the fourth/tenth century, or the Imamis, Nasir al-DIn Tusi (seventh/thirteenth century) and 'Allama Hilli (seventh-eighth/thirteenth-fourteenth centuries) and many others, were to continue to write in Arabic.
^ Brummelen, Glen Van (2009). The Mathematics of the Heavens and the Earth: The Early History of Trigonometry. Princeton University Press. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-691-12973-0. Few would argue against the claim that al-Tusi was one of the greatest scientists of medieval Islam.
^ "Al-Tusi_Nasir biography". www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk. Retrieved 2018-08-05. One of al-Tusi's most important mathematical contributions was the creation of trigonometry as a mathematical discipline in its own right rather than as just a tool for astronomical applications. In Treatise on the quadrilateral al-Tusi gave the first extant exposition of the whole system of plane and spherical trigonometry. This work is really the first in history on trigonometry as an independent branch of pure mathematics and the first in which all six cases for a right-angled spherical triangle are set forth.
^ Berggren, J. L. (2013). "Islamic Mathematics". the cambridge history of science. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. pp. 62–83. doi:10.1017/CHO9780511974007.004. ISBN 978-0-521-59448-6.
^ electricpulp.com. "ṬUSI, NAṢIR-AL-DIN i. Biography – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2018-08-05. His major contribution in mathematics (Nasr, 1996, pp. 208-14) is said to be in trigonometry, which for the first time was compiled by him as a new discipline in its own right. Spherical trigonometry also owes its development to his efforts, and this includes the concept of the six fundamental formulas for the solution of spherical right-angled triangles.
^ James Winston Morris, "An Arab Machiavelli? Rhetoric, Philosophy and Politics in Ibn Khaldun’s Critique of Sufism", Harvard Middle Eastern and Islamic Review 8 (2009), pp 242–291. [1] Archived 2010-06-20 at the Wayback Machine excerpt from page 286 (footnote 39): "Ibn Khaldun’s own personal opinion is no doubt summarized in his pointed remark (Q 3: 274) that Tusi was better than any other later Iranian scholar". Original Arabic: Muqaddimat Ibn Khaldūn : dirāsah usūlīyah tārīkhīyah / li-Aḥmad Ṣubḥī Manṣūr-al-Qāhirah : Markaz Ibn Khaldūn : Dār al-Amīn, 1998. ISBN 977-19-6070-9. Excerpt from Ibn Khaldun is found in the section: الفصل الثالث و الأربعون: في أن حملة العلم في الإسلام أكثرهم العجم (On how the majority who carried knowledge forward in Islam were Persians) In this section, see the sentence where he mentions Tusi as more knowledgeable than other later Persian ('Ajam) scholars: . و أما غيره من العجم فلم نر لهم من بعد الإمام ابن الخطيب و نصير الدين الطوسي كلاما يعول على نهايته في الإصابة. فاعتير ذلك و تأمله تر عجبا في أحوال الخليقة. و الله يخلق ما بشاء لا شريك له الملك و له الحمد و هو على كل شيء قدير و حسبنا الله و نعم الوكيل و الحمد لله.
^ Nosonovsky, Michael (2018-08-14). "Abner of Burgos: The Missing Link between Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and Nicolaus Copernicus?". Zutot. 15 (1): 25–30. doi:10.1163/18750214-12151070. ISSN 1571-7283. S2CID 135358186.
^ Morrison, Robert (March 2014). "A Scholarly Intermediary between the Ottoman Empire and Renaissance Europe". Isis. 105 (1): 32–57. doi:10.1086/675550. ISSN 0021-1753. PMID 24855871. S2CID 12180700.^{[permanent dead link]}
^ Pedersen, Olaf (1993-03-11). Early Physics and Astronomy: A Historical Introduction. CUP Archive. pp. 273–274. ISBN 978-0-521-40899-8.
^ Rabin, Sheila (2004-11-30). "Nicolaus Copernicus". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
^ Hartner, Willy (1973). "Copernicus, the Man, the Work, and Its History". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 117 (6): 413–422. Bibcode:1973PAPhS.117..413H. ISSN 0003-049X. JSTOR 986460.
^ Kennedy, E. S. (October 1966). "Late 0Medieval Planetary Theory". Isis. 57 (3): 365–378. doi:10.1086/350144. ISSN 0021-1753. S2CID 143569912.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

[MacT-1] Cite error: The named reference MacT was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[2] Cooper, John (1998). "al-Tusi, Khwajah Nasir (1201-74)". Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Routledge.

[Shams-3] Shams al‐Dīn al‐Bukhārī at the Mathematics Genealogy Project

[4] "ṬUSI, NAṢIR-AL-DIN i. Biography". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 2018-08-05.

[6] Lameer, Joep (2015). The Arabic Version of Ṭūsī's Nasirean Ethics. Brill. ISBN 978-9004304505.

[7] Multiple sources:
Bennison, Amira K. (2009). The great caliphs : the golden age of the 'Abbasid Empire. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 204. ISBN 978-0-300-15227-2. Hulegu killed the last 'Abbasid caliph but also patronized the foundation of a new observatory at Maragha in Azerbayjan at the instigation of the Persian Shi'i polymath Nasir al-Din Tusi.

Goldschmidt, Arthur; Boum, Aomar (2015). A Concise History of the Middle East. Avalon Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8133-4963-3. Hulegu, contrite at the damage he had wrought, patronized the great Persian scholar, Nasiruddin Tusi (died 1274), who saved the lives of many other scientists and artists, accumulated a library of 400000 volumes, and built an astronomical ...

Bar Hebraeus; Joosse, Nanne Pieter George (2004). A Syriac Encyclopaedia of Aristotelian Philosophy: Barhebraeus (13th C.), Butyrum Sapientiae, Books of Ethics, Economy, and Politics : a Critical Edition, with Introduction, Translation, Commentary, and Glossaries. Brill. p. 11. ISBN 978-90-04-14133-9. the Persian scholar Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī

Seyyed Hossein Nasr (2006). Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present: Philosophy in the Land of Prophecy. State University of New York Press. p. 167. ISBN 978-0-7914-6800-5. In fact it was common among Persian Islamic philosophers to write few quatrains on the side often in the spirit of some of the poems of Khayyam singing about the impermanence of the world and its transience and similar themes. One needs to only recall the names of Ibn Sina, Suhrawardi, Nasir al-Din Tusi and Mulla Sadra, who wrote poems along with extensive prose works.

Rodney Collomb, "The rise and fall of the Arab Empire and the founding of Western pre-eminence", Published by Spellmount, 2006. pg 127: "Khawaja Nasr ed-Din Tusi, the Persian, Khorasani, former chief scholar and scientist of"

Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present: Philosophy in the Land of Prophecy, SUNY Press, 2006, ISBN 0-7914-6799-6. page 199

Seyyed H. Badakhchani. Contemplation and Action: The Spiritual Autobiography of a Muslim Scholar: Nasir al-Din Tusi (In Association With the Institute of Ismaili Studies. I. B. Tauris (December 3, 1999). ISBN 1-86064-523-2. page.1: ""Nasir al-Din Abu Ja`far Muhammad b. Muhammad b. Hasan Tusi:, the renowned Persian astronomer, philosopher and theologian"

Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven John; Wallis, Faith (2005). Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-96930-7. drawn by the Persian cosmographer al-Tusi.

Laet, Sigfried J. de (1994). History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century. UNESCO. p. 908. ISBN 978-92-3-102813-7. the Persian astronomer and philosopher Nasir al-Din Tusi.

Mirchandani, Vinnie (2010). The New Polymath: Profiles in Compound-Technology Innovations. John Wiley & Sons. p. 300. ISBN 978-0-470-76845-7. Nasir. al-Din. al-Tusi: Stay. Humble. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, the Persian polymath, talked about humility: "Anyone who does not know and does not know that he does not know is stuck forever in double ...

Ṭūsī, Naṣīr al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad; Badakchani, S. J. (2005), Paradise of Submission: A Medieval Treatise on Ismaili Thought, Ismaili Texts and Translations, vol. 5, London: I.B. Tauris in association with Institute of Ismaili Studies, pp. 2–3, ISBN 1-86064-436-8

Holt, P. M.; Lambton, Ann K. S.; Lewis, Bernard (1986). The Cambridge History of Islam Volume 2B, Islamic Society and Civilisation (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 585. ISBN 978-0-521-21949-5. secondly, some very great Shi'i thinkers who were ethnically Persian, such as the Isma'ilis, Abu Hatim Razi and Sijistani in the fourth/tenth century, or the Imamis, Nasir al-DIn Tusi (seventh/thirteenth century) and 'Allama Hilli (seventh-eighth/thirteenth-fourteenth centuries) and many others, were to continue to write in Arabic.

[7] Bennison, Amira K. (2009). The great caliphs : the golden age of the 'Abbasid Empire. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 204. ISBN 978-0-300-15227-2. Hulegu killed the last 'Abbasid caliph but also patronized the foundation of a new observatory at Maragha in Azerbayjan at the instigation of the Persian Shi'i polymath Nasir al-Din Tusi.

[8] Goldschmidt, Arthur; Boum, Aomar (2015). A Concise History of the Middle East. Avalon Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8133-4963-3. Hulegu, contrite at the damage he had wrought, patronized the great Persian scholar, Nasiruddin Tusi (died 1274), who saved the lives of many other scientists and artists, accumulated a library of 400000 volumes, and built an astronomical ...

[9] Bar Hebraeus; Joosse, Nanne Pieter George (2004). A Syriac Encyclopaedia of Aristotelian Philosophy: Barhebraeus (13th C.), Butyrum Sapientiae, Books of Ethics, Economy, and Politics : a Critical Edition, with Introduction, Translation, Commentary, and Glossaries. Brill. p. 11. ISBN 978-90-04-14133-9. the Persian scholar Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī

[10] Seyyed Hossein Nasr (2006). Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present: Philosophy in the Land of Prophecy. State University of New York Press. p. 167. ISBN 978-0-7914-6800-5. In fact it was common among Persian Islamic philosophers to write few quatrains on the side often in the spirit of some of the poems of Khayyam singing about the impermanence of the world and its transience and similar themes. One needs to only recall the names of Ibn Sina, Suhrawardi, Nasir al-Din Tusi and Mulla Sadra, who wrote poems along with extensive prose works.

[11] Rodney Collomb, "The rise and fall of the Arab Empire and the founding of Western pre-eminence", Published by Spellmount, 2006. pg 127: "Khawaja Nasr ed-Din Tusi, the Persian, Khorasani, former chief scholar and scientist of"

[12] Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present: Philosophy in the Land of Prophecy, SUNY Press, 2006, ISBN 0-7914-6799-6. page 199

[13] Seyyed H. Badakhchani. Contemplation and Action: The Spiritual Autobiography of a Muslim Scholar: Nasir al-Din Tusi (In Association With the Institute of Ismaili Studies. I. B. Tauris (December 3, 1999). ISBN 1-86064-523-2. page.1: ""Nasir al-Din Abu Ja`far Muhammad b. Muhammad b. Hasan Tusi:, the renowned Persian astronomer, philosopher and theologian"

[14] Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven John; Wallis, Faith (2005). Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-96930-7. drawn by the Persian cosmographer al-Tusi.

[15] Laet, Sigfried J. de (1994). History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century. UNESCO. p. 908. ISBN 978-92-3-102813-7. the Persian astronomer and philosopher Nasir al-Din Tusi.

[16] Mirchandani, Vinnie (2010). The New Polymath: Profiles in Compound-Technology Innovations. John Wiley & Sons. p. 300. ISBN 978-0-470-76845-7. Nasir. al-Din. al-Tusi: Stay. Humble. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, the Persian polymath, talked about humility: "Anyone who does not know and does not know that he does not know is stuck forever in double ...

[17] Ṭūsī, Naṣīr al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad; Badakchani, S. J. (2005), Paradise of Submission: A Medieval Treatise on Ismaili Thought, Ismaili Texts and Translations, vol. 5, London: I.B. Tauris in association with Institute of Ismaili Studies, pp. 2–3, ISBN 1-86064-436-8

[18] Holt, P. M.; Lambton, Ann K. S.; Lewis, Bernard (1986). The Cambridge History of Islam Volume 2B, Islamic Society and Civilisation (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 585. ISBN 978-0-521-21949-5. secondly, some very great Shi'i thinkers who were ethnically Persian, such as the Isma'ilis, Abu Hatim Razi and Sijistani in the fourth/tenth century, or the Imamis, Nasir al-DIn Tusi (seventh/thirteenth century) and 'Allama Hilli (seventh-eighth/thirteenth-fourteenth centuries) and many others, were to continue to write in Arabic.

[8] Brummelen, Glen Van (2009). The Mathematics of the Heavens and the Earth: The Early History of Trigonometry. Princeton University Press. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-691-12973-0. Few would argue against the claim that al-Tusi was one of the greatest scientists of medieval Islam.

[9] "Al-Tusi_Nasir biography". www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk. Retrieved 2018-08-05. One of al-Tusi's most important mathematical contributions was the creation of trigonometry as a mathematical discipline in its own right rather than as just a tool for astronomical applications. In Treatise on the quadrilateral al-Tusi gave the first extant exposition of the whole system of plane and spherical trigonometry. This work is really the first in history on trigonometry as an independent branch of pure mathematics and the first in which all six cases for a right-angled spherical triangle are set forth.

[10] Berggren, J. L. (2013). "Islamic Mathematics". the cambridge history of science. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. pp. 62–83. doi:10.1017/CHO9780511974007.004. ISBN 978-0-521-59448-6.

[11] tricpulp.com. "ṬUSI, NAṢIR-AL-DIN i. Biography – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2018-08-05. His major contribution in mathematics (Nasr, 1996, pp. 208-14) is said to be in trigonometry, which for the first time was compiled by him as a new discipline in its own right. Spherical trigonometry also owes its development to his efforts, and this includes the concept of the six fundamental formulas for the solution of spherical right-angled triangles.

[Khaldun-12] James Winston Morris, "An Arab Machiavelli? Rhetoric, Philosophy and Politics in Ibn Khaldun’s Critique of Sufism", Harvard Middle Eastern and Islamic Review 8 (2009), pp 242–291. [1] Archived 2010-06-20 at the Wayback Machine excerpt from page 286 (footnote 39): "Ibn Khaldun’s own personal opinion is no doubt summarized in his pointed remark (Q 3: 274) that Tusi was better than any other later Iranian scholar". Original Arabic: Muqaddimat Ibn Khaldūn : dirāsah usūlīyah tārīkhīyah / li-Aḥmad Ṣubḥī Manṣūr-al-Qāhirah : Markaz Ibn Khaldūn : Dār al-Amīn, 1998. ISBN 977-19-6070-9. Excerpt from Ibn Khaldun is found in the section: الفصل الثالث و الأربعون: في أن حملة العلم في الإسلام أكثرهم العجم (On how the majority who carried knowledge forward in Islam were Persians) In this section, see the sentence where he mentions Tusi as more knowledgeable than other later Persian ('Ajam) scholars: . و أما غيره من العجم فلم نر لهم من بعد الإمام ابن الخطيب و نصير الدين الطوسي كلاما يعول على نهايته في الإصابة. فاعتير ذلك و تأمله تر عجبا في أحوال الخليقة. و الله يخلق ما بشاء لا شريك له الملك و له الحمد و هو على كل شيء قدير و حسبنا الله و نعم الوكيل و الحمد لله.

[:12-13] Nosonovsky, Michael (2018-08-14). "Abner of Burgos: The Missing Link between Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and Nicolaus Copernicus?". Zutot. 15 (1): 25–30. doi:10.1163/18750214-12151070. ISSN 1571-7283. S2CID 135358186.

[:22-14] Morrison, Robert (March 2014). "A Scholarly Intermediary between the Ottoman Empire and Renaissance Europe". Isis. 105 (1): 32–57. doi:10.1086/675550. ISSN 0021-1753. PMID 24855871. S2CID 12180700.^{[permanent dead link]}

[:32-15] Pedersen, Olaf (1993-03-11). Early Physics and Astronomy: A Historical Introduction. CUP Archive. pp. 273–274. ISBN 978-0-521-40899-8.

[:62-16] Rabin, Sheila (2004-11-30). "Nicolaus Copernicus". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

[:03-17] Hartner, Willy (1973). "Copernicus, the Man, the Work, and Its History". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 117 (6): 413–422. Bibcode:1973PAPhS.117..413H. ISSN 0003-049X. JSTOR 986460.

[:72-18] Kennedy, E. S. (October 1966). "Late 0Medieval Planetary Theory". Isis. 57 (3): 365–378. doi:10.1086/350144. ISSN 0021-1753. S2CID 143569912.

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