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Religious views on female genital mutilation

Worldwide prevalence of female genital mutilation
OriginNortheast Africa, possibly Meroë (current Sudan), c. 800 BCE – c. 350 CE[citation needed]
Earliest reference163 BCE
ConcentrationAfrica, Middle East, Indonesia, Malaysia
ReligionsMostly Sunni Muslims, but also Animist, Christian and one Jewish group
Required by any religionNone except Shafi'i version of Sunni Islam who require removal of the prepuce.[1][2][3][4][5][6]
Definition"Female genital mutilation comprises all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons" (WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA, 1997).[7]

There is a widespread view among practitioners of female genital mutilation (FGM) that it is a religious requirement,[2][3][4][8] although prevalence rates often vary according to geography and ethnic group.[9] There is an ongoing debate about the extent to which the practice's continuation is influenced by custom, social pressure, lack of health-care information, and the position of women in society.[a] The procedures confer no health benefits and can lead to serious health problems.[7][11]

FGM is practised predominantly within certain Muslim societies,[12] but it also exists within some adjacent Christian and animist groups.[13] The practice isn't required by most forms of Islam and fatwas have been issued forbidding FGM,[14] favouring it,[15] or leaving the decision to parents but advising against it.[16][17] However, FGM was introduced in Southeast Asia by the spread of Shafi'i version of Islamic jurisprudence, which considers the practice obligatory.[2][3][4][5][18] There is mention of it on a Greek papyrus from 163 BCE and a possible indirect reference to it on a coffin from Egypt's Middle Kingdom (c. 1991–1786 BCE).[19] It has been found among Coptic Christians in Egypt, Orthodox Christians in Ethiopia, and Protestants and Catholics in Sudan and Kenya.[20] The only Jewish group known to have practiced it are the Beta Israel of Ethiopia.[b]

  1. ^ "What is the Ruling on Circumcision for Women?". 31 August 2012.
  2. ^ a b c Rispler-Chaim 1993, pp. 85–86.
  3. ^ a b c Roald 2003, p. 243.
  4. ^ a b c Asmani & Abdi 2008, p. 13.
  5. ^ a b name="aflm">Feillard, Andree; Morcoes, Lies (1998). "Female Circumcision in Indonesia: To Islamize in Ceremony or Secrecy". Archipel. 56: 337–367. doi:10.3406/arch.1998.3495.
  6. ^ Ali, Kecia (2006). Sexual Ethics And Islam: Feminist Reflections on Qur'an, Hadith, and Jurisprudence. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, p. 100.
    Clarence-Smith, William G. (2012). "Female Circumcision in Southeast Asia since the Coming of Islam", in Chitra Raghavan and James P. Levine (eds.). Self-Determination and Women's Rights in Muslim Societies. Brandeis University Press, pp. 124–146. ISBN 978-1611682809
    Ghadially, R. (1991). "All for 'Izzat': The Practice of Female Circumcision among Bohra Muslims." Manushi, 66, Sept—Oct, pp. 17—20.

    Hefner, Robert (1985). Hindu Javanese: Tengger Tradition and Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 34–39, 142–147, 255–258.

  7. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference WHO2017 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  8. ^ Cappa, Claudia; et al. (22 July 2013). Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Statistical Overview and Exploration of the Dynamics of Change (PDF). New York: United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). pp. 69–71. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 April 2015. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  9. ^ Yoder, Stanley P.; Yang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (29 May 2013). "Estimates of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting in 27 African Countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): (189–204), 196–198. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. JSTOR 23408619. PMID 23720002.
  10. ^ Mackie, Gerry; LeJeune, John (2008). Social Dynamics of Abandonment of Harmful Practices: A New Look at the Theory (PDF) (Report). Working Paper No. 2008-XXX, UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre. p. 8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-14.
  11. ^ Abdulcadira, Jasmine; Margairaz, C.; Boulvain, M.; Irion, O. (January 2011). "Care of women with female genital mutilation/cutting". Swiss Medical Weekly. 140: w13137. doi:10.4414/smw.2011.13137. PMID 21213149.
  12. ^ Rouzi, Abdulrahim A. (2013). "Facts and controversies on female genital mutilation and Islam". The European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care. 18 (1): 10–14. doi:10.3109/13625187.2012.749982. PMID 23286241. S2CID 207523575.
  13. ^ Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305.
  14. ^ "In Mauritania, progress made in ending female genital mutilation/cutting" Archived 2019-11-10 at the Wayback Machine, UNICEF, October 2012.
    "Religious fatwa for banning all forms of FGM/C" (PDF). Somalia Ministry of Justice, Religion and Rehabilitation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2014.

    "Mauritania fatwa bans female genital mutilation", BBC News, 18 January 2010.

  15. ^ Cite error: The named reference Kedar1994 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  16. ^ "Iraqi Kurdistan: FGM Fatwa Positive, but Not Definitive", Human Rights Watch, 17 July 2010.
  17. ^ Cite error: The named reference El-Damanhoury2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  18. ^ Ali, Kecia (2006). Sexual Ethics And Islam: Feminist Reflections on Qur'an, Hadith, and Jurisprudence. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, p. 100.
    Clarence-Smith, William G. (2012). "Female Circumcision in Southeast Asia since the Coming of Islam", in Chitra Raghavan and James P. Levine (eds.). Self-Determination and Women's Rights in Muslim Societies. Brandeis University Press, pp. 124–146. ISBN 978-1611682809
    Ghadially, R. (1991). "All for 'Izzat': The Practice of Female Circumcision amongBohra Muslims." Manushi, 66, Sept—Oct, pp. 17—20.

    Hefner, Robert (1985). Hindu Javanese: Tengger Tradition and Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 34–39, 142–147, 255–258.

  19. ^ Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing Cut or Ritual Mutilation?: Some Remarks on the Practice of Female and Male Circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): (317–338), 330. doi:10.1086/385184. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
  20. ^ Papademetriou, George C. (2011).Two Traditions, One Space: Orthodox Christians and Muslims in Dialogue. Somerset Hall Press, p. 138. ISBN 978-1-935-24406-6
  21. ^ Cohen, Shaye J. D. (2005). Why Aren't Jewish Women Circumcised? Gender and Covenant In Judaism, Oakland: University of California Press, p. 59.


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