Horseshoe theory

In popular discourse, the horseshoe theory asserts that advocates of the far-left and the far-right, rather than being at opposite and opposing ends of a linear continuum of the political spectrum, closely resemble each other, analogous to the way that the opposite ends of a horseshoe are close together.^[1] The theory is attributed to the French philosopher and writer of fiction and poetry Jean-Pierre Faye in his 2002 book Le Siècle des idéologies ("The Century of Ideologies").^[2]

Several political scientists, psychologists, and sociologists have criticized the horseshoe theory.^[3]^[4]^[5] Proponents point to a number of perceived similarities between extremes and allege that both tend to support authoritarianism or totalitarianism; political scientists do not appear to support this notion, and instances of peer-reviewed research on the subject are scarce. Existing studies and comprehensive reviews often find only limited support and only under certain conditions; they generally contradict the theory's central premises.^[6]^[7]^[8]

^ Mayer, Nonna (2011). "Why extremes don't meet: Le Pen and Besancenot Voters in the 2007 Presidential Election". French Politics, Culture & Society. 29 (3). New York: Berghahn Books: 101–120. doi:10.3167/fpcs.2011.290307. S2CID 147451564. Retrieved 12 July 2023. A commonly received idea, one strengthened by the post-war debates about the nature of totalitarianism, is that 'extremes meet.' Rather than a straight line between the Left and Right poles, the political spectrum would look more like a circle, or a 'horseshoe,' a metaphor the philosopher Jean-Pierre Faye used to describe the position of German parties in 1932, from the Nazis to the Communists.
^ Encel, Frédéric; Thual, François (13 November 2004). "United States-Israel: A friendship that needs to be demystified". Le Figaro. Paris: Groupe Figaro. ISSN 1160-8811. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 12 July 2023. Jean-Pierre Faye's famous horseshoe theory (according to which extremes meet) finds verification here more than in other places, and the two states of delirium often mingle and meet, unfortunately spreading beyond these extremist circles. But contrary to the legend deliberately maintained and/or the commonplace believed in good faith, Israel and the United States have not always been allies; on several occasions their relations have even been strained.
^ Berlet, Chip; Lyons, Matthew N. (2008). Right-Wing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort. New York: Guilford Press. p. 342. ISBN 978-1-57230-568-7. OCLC 43929926. Retrieved 12 July 2023 – via Internet Archive.
^ Đorić, Marija; Filipović, Miroslava (2010). "The Left or the Right: Old Paradigms and New Governments". Serbian Political Thought. 2 (1–2). Belgrade: Institute of Political Studies in Belgrade: 121–144. doi:10.22182/spt.2122011.8.
^ Pavlopoulos, Vassilis (20 March 2014). Politics, Economics, and the Far Right in Europe: A Social Psychological Perspective (PDF). The Challenge of the Extreme Right in Europe: Past, Present, Future. London: Birkbeck, University of London. Retrieved 12 July 2023.
^ Van Hiel, Alain (2012). "A Psycho-Political Profile of Party Activists and Left-Wing and Right-Wing Extremists". European Journal of Political Research. 51 (2). Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell: 166–203. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6765.2011.01991.x. hdl:1854/LU-2109499. ISSN 1475-6765.
^ Hanel, Paul H. P.; Haddock, Geoffrey; Zarzeczna, Natalia (2019). "Sharing the Same Political Ideology Yet Endorsing Different Values: Left- and Right-Wing Political Supporters Are More Heterogeneous Than Moderates". Social Psychological and Personality Science. 10 (7). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications: 874–882. doi:10.1177/1948550618803348. ISSN 1948-5506. S2CID 52246707.
^ Hersh, Eitan; Royden, Laura (25 June 2022). "Antisemitic Attitudes Across the Ideological Spectrum". Political Research Quarterly. 76 (2). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications on behalf of the University of Utah: 697–711. doi:10.1177/10659129221111081. ISSN 1065-9129. S2CID 250060659.

[Mayer_2011-1] Mayer, Nonna (2011). "Why extremes don't meet: Le Pen and Besancenot Voters in the 2007 Presidential Election". French Politics, Culture & Society. 29 (3). New York: Berghahn Books: 101–120. doi:10.3167/fpcs.2011.290307. S2CID 147451564. Retrieved 12 July 2023. A commonly received idea, one strengthened by the post-war debates about the nature of totalitarianism, is that 'extremes meet.' Rather than a straight line between the Left and Right poles, the political spectrum would look more like a circle, or a 'horseshoe,' a metaphor the philosopher Jean-Pierre Faye used to describe the position of German parties in 1932, from the Nazis to the Communists.

[2] Encel, Frédéric; Thual, François (13 November 2004). "United States-Israel: A friendship that needs to be demystified". Le Figaro. Paris: Groupe Figaro. ISSN 1160-8811. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 12 July 2023. Jean-Pierre Faye's famous horseshoe theory (according to which extremes meet) finds verification here more than in other places, and the two states of delirium often mingle and meet, unfortunately spreading beyond these extremist circles. But contrary to the legend deliberately maintained and/or the commonplace believed in good faith, Israel and the United States have not always been allies; on several occasions their relations have even been strained.

[Berlet_&_Lyons_2000,_p._342-3] Berlet, Chip; Lyons, Matthew N. (2008). Right-Wing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort. New York: Guilford Press. p. 342. ISBN 978-1-57230-568-7. OCLC 43929926. Retrieved 12 July 2023 – via Internet Archive.

[Đorić_&_Filipović_2010-4] Đorić, Marija; Filipović, Miroslava (2010). "The Left or the Right: Old Paradigms and New Governments". Serbian Political Thought. 2 (1–2). Belgrade: Institute of Political Studies in Belgrade: 121–144. doi:10.22182/spt.2122011.8.

[Pavlopoulos_2014-5] Pavlopoulos, Vassilis (20 March 2014). Politics, Economics, and the Far Right in Europe: A Social Psychological Perspective (PDF). The Challenge of the Extreme Right in Europe: Past, Present, Future. London: Birkbeck, University of London. Retrieved 12 July 2023.

[Van_Hiel_2012-6] Van Hiel, Alain (2012). "A Psycho-Political Profile of Party Activists and Left-Wing and Right-Wing Extremists". European Journal of Political Research. 51 (2). Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell: 166–203. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6765.2011.01991.x. hdl:1854/LU-2109499. ISSN 1475-6765.

[Hanel,_Haddock_&_Zarzeczna_2019-7] Hanel, Paul H. P.; Haddock, Geoffrey; Zarzeczna, Natalia (2019). "Sharing the Same Political Ideology Yet Endorsing Different Values: Left- and Right-Wing Political Supporters Are More Heterogeneous Than Moderates". Social Psychological and Personality Science. 10 (7). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications: 874–882. doi:10.1177/1948550618803348. ISSN 1948-5506. S2CID 52246707.

[Hersh_&_Royden_2022-8] Hersh, Eitan; Royden, Laura (25 June 2022). "Antisemitic Attitudes Across the Ideological Spectrum". Political Research Quarterly. 76 (2). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications on behalf of the University of Utah: 697–711. doi:10.1177/10659129221111081. ISSN 1065-9129. S2CID 250060659.

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