Stress (biology)

Stress, whether physiological, biological or psychological, is an organism's response to a stressor such as an environmental condition.^[1] When stressed by stimuli that alter an organism's environment, multiple systems respond across the body.^[2] In humans and most mammals, the autonomic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis are the two major systems that respond to stress.^[3] Two well-known hormones that humans produce during stressful situations are adrenaline and cortisol.^[4]

The sympathoadrenal medullary (SAM) axis may activate the fight-or-flight response through the sympathetic nervous system, which dedicates energy to more relevant bodily systems to acute adaptation to stress, while the parasympathetic nervous system returns the body to homeostasis.

The second major physiological stress-response center, the HPA axis, regulates the release of cortisol, which influences many bodily functions such as metabolic, psychological and immunological functions. The SAM and HPA axes are regulated by several brain regions, including the limbic system, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hypothalamus, and stria terminalis.^[3] Through these mechanisms, stress can alter memory functions, reward, immune function, metabolism and susceptibility to diseases.^[5]

Disease risk is particularly pertinent to mental illnesses, whereby chronic or severe stress remains a common risk factor for several mental illnesses.^[6][7]