Indian astronomy

Indian astronomy refers to astronomy practiced in the Indian subcontinent. It has a long history stretching from pre-historic to modern times. Some of the earliest roots of Indian astronomy can be dated to the period of Indus Valley civilisation or earlier.^[1]^[2] Astronomy later developed as a discipline of Vedanga, or one of the "auxiliary disciplines" associated with the study of the Vedas^[3] dating 1500 BCE or older.^[4] The oldest known text is the Vedanga Jyotisha, dated to 1400–1200 BCE (with the extant form possibly from 700 to 600 BCE).^[5]

Indian astronomy was influenced by Greek astronomy beginning in the 4th century BCE^[6]^[7]^[8] and through the early centuries of the Common Era, for example by the Yavanajataka^[6] and the Romaka Siddhanta, a Sanskrit translation of a Greek text disseminated from the 2nd century.^[9]

Indian astronomy flowered in the 5th–6th century, with Aryabhata, whose work, Aryabhatiya, represented the pinnacle of astronomical knowledge at the time. The Aryabhatiya is composed of four sections, covering topics such as units of time, methods for determining the positions of planets, the cause of day and night, and several other cosmological concepts.^[10] Later, Indian astronomy significantly influenced Muslim astronomy, Chinese astronomy, European astronomy and others.^[11] Other astronomers of the classical era who further elaborated on Aryabhata's work include Brahmagupta, Varahamihira and Lalla.

An identifiable native Indian astronomical tradition remained active throughout the medieval period and into the 16th or 17th century, especially within the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.

(From left to right): Aryabhatta, A great indian mathematician and astronomer; Jantar Mantar, astronomical observatory made by Raja Jai Singh; Suryasiddhanta, an astronomical treatise.

^ Pierre-Yves Bely; Carol Christian; Jean-René Roy (11 March 2010). A Question and Answer Guide to Astronomy. Cambridge University Press. p. 197. ISBN 9780521180665.
^ Ashfaque, Syed Mohammad (1977). "Astronomy in the Indus Valley Civilization A Survey of the Problems and Possibilities of the Ancient Indian Astronomy and Cosmology in the Light of Indus Script Decipherment by the Finnish Scholars". Centaurus. 21 (2): 149–193. Bibcode:1977Cent...21..149A. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1977.tb00351.x.
^ Sarma 2008a.
^ The Vedas: An Introduction to Hinduism's Sacred Texts, Roshen Dalal, p.188
^ Subbarayappa, B. V. (14 September 1989). "Indian astronomy: An historical perspective". In Biswas, S. K.; Mallik, D. C. V.; Vishveshwara, C. V. (eds.). Cosmic Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. pp. 25–40. ISBN 978-0-521-34354-1.
^ ^a ^b Highlights of Astronomy, Volume 11B: As presented at the XXIIIrd General Assembly of the IAU, 1997. Johannes Andersen Springer, 31 January 1999 – Science – 616 pages. page 721 [1]
^ Babylon to Voyager and Beyond: A History of Planetary Astronomy. David Leverington. Cambridge University Press, 29 May 2010 – Science – 568 pages. page 41 [2]
^ The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. James Evans. Oxford University Press, 1 October 1998 – History – 496 pages. Page 393 [3]
^ Foreign Impact on Indian Life and Culture (c. 326 B.C. to C. 300 A.D.). Satyendra Nath Naskar. Abhinav Publications, 1 January 1996 – History – 253 pages. Pages 56–57 [4]
^ Clark, Walter (1930). Aryabhatiya: An Ancient Indian Work on Mathematics and Astronomy – An English Translation. The University of Chicago Press.
^ "Star Maps: History, Artistry, and Cartography", p. 17, by Nick Kanas, 2012

[question-1] Pierre-Yves Bely; Carol Christian; Jean-René Roy (11 March 2010). A Question and Answer Guide to Astronomy. Cambridge University Press. p. 197. ISBN 9780521180665.

[wiley-2] Ashfaque, Syed Mohammad (1977). "Astronomy in the Indus Valley Civilization A Survey of the Problems and Possibilities of the Ancient Indian Astronomy and Cosmology in the Light of Indus Script Decipherment by the Finnish Scholars". Centaurus. 21 (2): 149–193. Bibcode:1977Cent...21..149A. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1977.tb00351.x.

[FOOTNOTESarma2008a-3] Sarma 2008a.

[4] The Vedas: An Introduction to Hinduism's Sacred Texts, Roshen Dalal, p.188

[Cosmic-5] Subbarayappa, B. V. (14 September 1989). "Indian astronomy: An historical perspective". In Biswas, S. K.; Mallik, D. C. V.; Vishveshwara, C. V. (eds.). Cosmic Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. pp. 25–40. ISBN 978-0-521-34354-1.

[Andersen-6] Highlights of Astronomy, Volume 11B: As presented at the XXIIIrd General Assembly of the IAU, 1997. Johannes Andersen Springer, 31 January 1999 – Science – 616 pages. page 721 [1]

[Leverington-7] Babylon to Voyager and Beyond: A History of Planetary Astronomy. David Leverington. Cambridge University Press, 29 May 2010 – Science – 568 pages. page 41 [2]

[Evans-8] The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. James Evans. Oxford University Press, 1 October 1998 – History – 496 pages. Page 393 [3]

[Naskar-9] Foreign Impact on Indian Life and Culture (c. 326 B.C. to C. 300 A.D.). Satyendra Nath Naskar. Abhinav Publications, 1 January 1996 – History – 253 pages. Pages 56–57 [4]

[10] Clark, Walter (1930). Aryabhatiya: An Ancient Indian Work on Mathematics and Astronomy – An English Translation. The University of Chicago Press.

[11] "Star Maps: History, Artistry, and Cartography", p. 17, by Nick Kanas, 2012

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