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Colonialism

A factory entrepôt, a basic example of colonialism illustrating its different elements, hierarchies and impact on the land and people (the Dutch V.O.C. factory in Hugli-Chuchura, Bengal, in 1665)

Colonialism is the pursuing, establishing and maintaining of control and exploitation of people and of resources by a foreign group of people.[1][2][3][4][5] Implemented through the establishment of coloniality and possibly colonies, this colonization keeps colonized territory and people socio-economically othered and subaltern to colonizers and their metropole. While frequently advanced as an imperialist regime, colonialism can take the form of settler colonialism, whereby colonial settlers invade and occupy territory to permanently replace an existing society with that of the colonizers, possibly towards a genocide of native populations.[6][7]

Colonialism and its definition may vary depending on the use of the term and the context,[4][8] with colonies having been set up since ancient times. The modern concept of colonialism originated to describe European colonial empires of the modern era. This modern colonialism developed and spread globally from the 15th century to the mid-20th century, with European colonial empires spanning 35% of Earth's land by 1800 and peaking at 84% by the beginning of World War I.[9] Modern colonialism developed a coloniality which complemented military colonial control through intersectional violence and discrimination, developing modern biopolitics of sexuality, gender, race, disability and class, among others.[10][11] Western colonialism was frequently justified by beliefs of having a civilizing or often Christian mission to cultivate land and life. In the modern period, non-Western states such as Japan, China, and Indonesia have engaged in colonialism.[6]

Decolonization, which started in the 18th century, gradually in waves led to the independence of colonies, with a particular large wave of decolonizations happening in the aftermath of World War II between 1945 and 1975.[12][13] Colonialism has a persistent impact on a wide range of modern outcomes, as scholars have shown that variations in colonial institutions can account for variations in economic development,[14][15][16] regime types,[17][18] and state capacity.[19][20]

  1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Oster was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Webster was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Collins was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  4. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Stanford was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  5. ^ Rodney, Walter (2018). How Europe underdeveloped Africa. Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78873-119-5. OCLC 1048081465.
  6. ^ a b McNamee, Lachlan (2023). Settling for Less: Why States Colonize and Why They Stop. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-23781-7.
  7. ^ Jacobs, Margaret D. (2009-07-01). White Mother to a Dark Race. Lincoln: U of Nebraska Press. p. 24, 81, 421, 430. ISBN 978-0-8032-1100-1. OCLC 268789976.
  8. ^ Horvath, Ronald J. (1972). "A Definition of Colonialism". Current Anthropology. 13: 45–57. doi:10.1086/201248. S2CID 144173629.
  9. ^ Philip T. Hoffman (2015). Why Did Europe Conquer the World?. Princeton University Press. pp. 2–3. ISBN 978-1-4008-6584-0.
  10. ^ Stoler, Ann Laura (1995-10-04). Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things. Duke University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv11319d6. ISBN 978-0-8223-7771-9.
  11. ^ Abay, Robel Afeworki; Soldatic, Karen. "Intersectional Colonialities: Embodied Colonial Violence and Practices of Resistance at the Axis of Disability, Race, Indigeneity, Class, and Gender". Routledge & CRC Press. Retrieved 2024-03-08.
  12. ^ Strang, David (1991). "Global Patterns of Decolonization, 1500-1987". International Studies Quarterly. 35 (4): 429–454. doi:10.2307/2600949. ISSN 0020-8833.
  13. ^ Strang, David (1990). "From Dependency to Sovereignty: An Event History Analysis of Decolonization 1870-1987". American Sociological Review. 55 (6): 846–860. doi:10.2307/2095750. ISSN 0003-1224.
  14. ^ Acemoglu, Daron; Johnson, Simon; Robinson, James A. (2001). "The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation". American Economic Review. 91 (5): 1369–1401. doi:10.1257/aer.91.5.1369. ISSN 0002-8282.
  15. ^ Nunn, Nathan (2009). "The Importance of History for Economic Development". Annual Review of Economics. 1 (1): 65–92. doi:10.1146/annurev.economics.050708.143336. ISSN 1941-1383.
  16. ^ Nunn, Nathan (2020). "The historical roots of economic development". Science. 367 (6485). doi:10.1126/science.aaz9986. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 32217703.
  17. ^ Lee, Alexander; Paine, Jack (2024). Colonial Origins of Democracy and Dictatorship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009423526. ISBN 978-1-009-42353-3.
  18. ^ Gerring, John; Apfeld, Brendan; Wig, Tore; Tollefsen, Andreas Forø (2022). The Deep Roots of Modern Democracy: Geography and the Diffusion of Political Institutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009115223. ISBN 978-1-009-10037-3.
  19. ^ Herbst, Jeffrey (2000). States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control - Second Edition. Vol. 149 (REV - Revised, 2 ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-16414-4.
  20. ^ Ali, Merima; Fjeldstad, Odd-Helge; Jiang, Boqian; Shifa, Abdulaziz B (2018). "Colonial Legacy, State-building and the Salience of Ethnicity in Sub-Saharan Africa". The Economic Journal. 129 (619): 1048–1081. doi:10.1111/ecoj.12595. ISSN 0013-0133.

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