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Alcohol (drug)

This article is about ethanol as a recreational or psychoactive substance. For the chemical class, see Alcohol (chemistry). For types and characteristics of alcoholic beverages, see Alcoholic beverage. For medical uses of alcohols, see Alcohols (medicine). For the substance in general, see Ethanol.

Ethanol
Skeletal formula of ethanol
Ball-and-stick model of ethanol Space-filling model of ethanol
Clinical data
Pronunciation/ˈɛθənɒl/
Other namesAbsolute alcohol; Alcohol (USPTooltip United States Pharmacopeia); Cologne spirit; Drinking alcohol; Ethanol (JANTooltip Japanese Accepted Name); Ethylic alcohol; EtOH; Ethyl alcohol; Ethyl hydrate; Ethyl hydroxide; Ethylol; Grain alcohol; Hydroxyethane; Methylcarbinol
Pregnancy
category
  • X (Contraindicated in pregnancy)
Dependence
liability		Moderate[1]
Addiction
liability		Moderate (10–15%)[2]
Routes of
administration		Common: By mouth
Uncommon: Suppository, inhalation, ophthalmic, insufflation, injection[3]
Drug classDepressant; Anxiolytic; Analgesic; Euphoriant; Sedative; Emetic; Diuretic; General anesthetic
ATC code
Legal status
Legal status
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability80%+[4][5]
Protein bindingWeakly or not at all[4][5]
MetabolismLiver (90%):[6][8]
• Alcohol dehydrogenase
• MEOS (CYP2E1)
MetabolitesAcetaldehyde; Acetic acid; Acetyl-CoA; Carbon dioxide; Water; Ethyl glucuronide; Ethyl sulfate
Onset of actionPeak concentrations:[6][4]
• Range: 30–90 minutes
• Mean: 45–60 minutes
• Fasting: 30 minutes
Elimination half-lifeConstant-rate elimination at typical concentrations:[7][8][6]
• Range: 10–34 mg/dL/hour
• Mean (men): 15 mg/dL/hour
• Mean (women): 18 mg/dL/hr
At very high concentrations (t1/2): 4.0–4.5 hours[5][4]
Duration of action6–16 hours (amount of time that levels are detectable)[9]
Excretion• Major: metabolism (into carbon dioxide and water)[4]
• Minor: urine, breath, sweat (5–10%)[6][4]
Identifiers
  • ethanol
CAS Number
PubChem CID
IUPHAR/BPS
DrugBank
ChemSpider
UNII
KEGG
ChEBI
ChEMBL
PDB ligand
Chemical and physical data
FormulaC2H6O
Molar mass46.069 g·mol−1
3D model (JSmol)
Density0.7893 g/cm3 (at 20 °C)[10]
Melting point−114.14 ± 0.03 °C (−173.45 ± 0.05 °F) [10]
Boiling point78.24 ± 0.09 °C (172.83 ± 0.16 °F) [10]
Solubility in waterMiscible mg/mL (20 °C)
  • CCO
  • InChI=1S/C2H6O/c1-2-3/h3H,2H2,1H3
  • Key:LFQSCWFLJHTTHZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N

Alcohol, sometimes referred to by the chemical name ethanol, is the active ingredient in alcoholic drinks such as beer, wine, and distilled spirits (hard liquor).[11] Alcohol is a central nervous system (CNS) depressant, decreasing electrical activity of neurons in the brain,[12] which causes the characteristic effects of alcohol intoxication ("drunkenness").[13] Among other effects, alcohol produces euphoria, decreased anxiety, increased sociability, sedation, and impairment of cognitive, memory, motor, and sensory function.

Alcohol has a variety of adverse effects. Short-term adverse effects include generalized impairment of neurocognitive function, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and symptoms of hangover. Alcohol is addictive and can result in alcohol use disorder, dependence, and withdrawal upon cessation. The long-term effects of alcohol are considered to be a major global public health issue and include liver disease, hepatitis,[14] cardiovascular disease (e.g., cardiomyopathy), polyneuropathy, alcoholic hallucinosis, long-term impact on the brain (e.g., brain damage, dementia, and Marchiafava–Bignami disease),[15][16] and cancers.[17] The adverse effects of alcohol on health are most significant when it is used in excessive quantities or with heavy frequency. However, some of them, such as increased risk of certain cancers, may occur even with light or moderate alcohol consumption.[18][19] In high amounts, alcohol may cause loss of consciousness or, in severe cases, death.

Alcohol has been produced and consumed by humans for its psychoactive effects since c. 7000–6600 BC.[20] Alcohol is the second most consumed psychoactive drug globally, behind caffeine.[21][22] Drinking alcohol is generally socially acceptable and is legal in most countries, unlike with many other recreational substances. However, there are often restrictions on alcohol sale and use, for instance a minimum age for drinking and laws against public drinking and drinking and driving.[23] Alcohol has considerable societal and cultural significance and has important social roles in much of the world. Drinking establishments, such as bars and nightclubs, revolve primarily around the sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages, and parties, festivals, and social gatherings commonly involve alcohol consumption. Alcohol is related to various societal problems, including drunk driving, accidental injuries, sexual assaults, domestic abuse, and violent crime.[24] Alcohol remains illegal for sale and consumption in a number of countries, mainly in the Middle East. While some religions, including Islam, prohibit alcohol consumption, other religions, such as Christianity and Shinto, utilize alcohol in sacrament and libation.[25][26][27]

  1. ^ WHO Expert Committee on Problems Related to Alcohol Consumption: second report. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. 2007. p. 23. ISBN 978-92-4-120944-1. Retrieved 3 March 2015. ...alcohol dependence (is) a substantial risk of regular heavy drinking...
  2. ^ Vengeliene V, Bilbao A, Molander A, Spanagel R (May 2008). "Neuropharmacology of alcohol addiction". British Journal of Pharmacology. 154 (2): 299–315. doi:10.1038/bjp.2008.30. PMC 2442440. PMID 18311194. (Compulsive alcohol use) occurs only in a limited proportion of about 10–15% of alcohol users....
  3. ^ Gilman JM, Ramchandani VA, Crouss T, Hommer DW (January 2012). "Subjective and neural responses to intravenous alcohol in young adults with light and heavy drinking patterns". Neuropsychopharmacology. 37 (2): 467–77. doi:10.1038/npp.2011.206. PMC 3242308. PMID 21956438.
  4. ^ a b c d e f Principles of Addiction: Comprehensive Addictive Behaviors and Disorders. Academic Press. 17 May 2013. pp. 162–. ISBN 978-0-12-398361-9.
  5. ^ a b c Holford NH (November 1987). "Clinical pharmacokinetics of ethanol". Clinical Pharmacokinetics. 13 (5): 273–92. doi:10.2165/00003088-198713050-00001. PMID 3319346. S2CID 19723995.
  6. ^ a b c d Pohorecky LA, Brick J (1988). "Pharmacology of ethanol". Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 36 (2–3): 335–427. doi:10.1016/0163-7258(88)90109-x. PMID 3279433.
  7. ^ Becker CE (September 1970). "The clinical pharmacology of alcohol". California Medicine. 113 (3): 37–45. PMC 1501558. PMID 5457514.
  8. ^ a b Levine B (2003). Principles of Forensic Toxicology. Amer. Assoc. for Clinical Chemistry. pp. 161–. ISBN 978-1-890883-87-4.
  9. ^ Iber FL (26 November 1990). Alcohol and Drug Abuse as Encountered in Office Practice. CRC Press. pp. 74–. ISBN 978-0-8493-0166-7.
  10. ^ a b c Haynes WM, ed. (2011). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (92nd ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. p. 3.246. ISBN 1-4398-5511-0.
  11. ^ Collins SE, Kirouac M (2013). "Alcohol Consumption". Encyclopedia of Behavioral Medicine. pp. 61–65. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1005-9_626. ISBN 978-1-4419-1004-2.
  12. ^ Costardi JV, Nampo RA, Silva GL, Ribeiro MA, Stella HJ, Stella MB, et al. (August 2015). "A review on alcohol: from the central action mechanism to chemical dependency". Revista da Associação Médica Brasileira. 61 (4): 381–387. doi:10.1590/1806-9282.61.04.381. PMID 26466222.
  13. ^ "10th Special Report to the U.S. Congress on Alcohol and Health: Highlights from Current Research" (PDF). National Institute of Health. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. June 2000. p. 134. Retrieved 21 October 2014. The brain is a major target for the actions of alcohol, and heavy alcohol consumption has long been associated with brain damage. Studies clearly indicate that alcohol is neurotoxic, with direct effects on nerve cells. Chronic alcohol abusers are at additional risk for brain injury from related causes, such as poor nutrition, liver disease, and head trauma.
  14. ^ Bruha R, Dvorak K, Petrtyl J (March 2012). "Alcoholic liver disease". World Journal of Hepatology. 4 (3): 81–90. doi:10.4254/wjh.v4.i3.81. PMC 3321494. PMID 22489260.
  15. ^ Brust JC (April 2010). "Ethanol and cognition: indirect effects, neurotoxicity and neuroprotection: a review". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 7 (4): 1540–57. doi:10.3390/ijerph7041540. PMC 2872345. PMID 20617045.
  16. ^ Venkataraman A, Kalk N, Sewell G, Ritchie CW, Lingford-Hughes A (March 2017). "Alcohol and Alzheimer's Disease-Does Alcohol Dependence Contribute to Beta-Amyloid Deposition, Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's Disease?". Alcohol and Alcoholism. 52 (2): 151–158. doi:10.1093/alcalc/agw092. hdl:10044/1/42603. PMID 27915236.
  17. ^ de Menezes RF, Bergmann A, Thuler LC (2013). "Alcohol consumption and risk of cancer: a systematic literature review". Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention. 14 (9): 4965–72. doi:10.7314/apjcp.2013.14.9.4965. PMID 24175760.
  18. ^ Bagnardi V, Rota M, Botteri E, Tramacere I, Islami F, Fedirko V, et al. (February 2013). "Light alcohol drinking and cancer: a meta-analysis". Annals of Oncology. 24 (2): 301–8. doi:10.1093/annonc/mds337. PMID 22910838.
  19. ^ Yasinski, Emma, Even If You Don't Drink Daily, Alcohol Can Mess With Your Brain, Discover (magazine), January 12, 2021
  20. ^ Cite error: The named reference pmid15590771 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  21. ^ Song F, Walker MP (8 November 2023). "Sleep, alcohol, and caffeine in financial traders". PLOS ONE. 18 (11): e0291675. Bibcode:2023PLoSO..1891675S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0291675. PMC 10631622. PMID 37939019. Alcohol and caffeine are two of the most widely consumed psychoactive substances in the world.
  22. ^ Ferré S (June 2013). "Caffeine and Substance Use Disorders". Journal of Caffeine Research. 3 (2): 57–58. doi:10.1089/jcr.2013.0015. PMC 3680974. PMID 24761274. Caffeine is the most consumed psychoactive drug in the world.
  23. ^ Babor T, Caetano R, Casswell S, Edwards G, Giesbrecht N, Graham K, et al. (2010). Alcohol: No Ordinary Commodity: Research and Public Policy (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-955114-9. OCLC 656362316.
  24. ^ Cite error: The named reference ButcherHooley2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  25. ^ Ruthven M (1997). Islam : a very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-154011-0. OCLC 43476241.
  26. ^ "Eucharist | Definition, Symbols, Meaning, Significance, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
  27. ^ Bocking B (1997). A popular dictionary of Shintō (Rev. ed.). Richmond, Surrey [U.K.]: Curzon Press. ISBN 0-7007-1051-5. OCLC 264474222.

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