Ayurveda

Ayurveda (/ˌɑːjʊərˈveɪdə, -ˈviː-/; IAST: ayurveda)^[1] is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent.^[2] It is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population report using ayurveda.^[3]^[4]^[5] The theory and practice of ayurveda is pseudoscientific.^[6]^[7]^[8]

Ayurveda therapies have varied and evolved over more than two millennia.^[2] Therapies include herbal medicines, special diets, meditation, yoga, massage, laxatives, enemas, and medical oils.^[9]^[10] Ayurvedic preparations are typically based on complex herbal compounds, minerals, and metal substances (perhaps under the influence of early Indian alchemy or rasashastra). Ancient ayurveda texts also taught surgical techniques, including rhinoplasty, kidney stone extractions, sutures, and the extraction of foreign objects.^[11]^[12]

The main classical ayurveda texts begin with accounts of the transmission of medical knowledge from the gods to sages, and then to human physicians.^[13] Printed editions of the Sushruta Samhita (Sushruta's Compendium), frame the work as the teachings of Dhanvantari, Hindu god of ayurveda, incarnated as King Divodāsa of Varanasi, to a group of physicians, including Sushruta.^[14]^[15] The oldest manuscripts of the work, however, omit this frame, ascribing the work directly to King Divodāsa.^[16] Through well-understood processes of modernization and globalization, ayurveda has been adapted for Western consumption, notably by Baba Hari Dass in the 1970s and Maharishi ayurveda in the 1980s.^[17] Historical evidence for ayurvedic texts, terminology and concepts appears from the middle of the first millennium BCE onwards.^[18]

In ayurveda texts, dosha balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges is considered unhealthy and claimed to lead to illness.^[19] Ayurveda treatises describe three elemental doshas: vāta, pitta and kapha, and state that balance (Skt. sāmyatva) of the doshas results in health, while imbalance (viṣamatva) results in disease. Ayurveda treatises divide medicine into eight canonical components. Ayurveda practitioners had developed various medicinal preparations and surgical procedures from at least the beginning of the common era.^[20]

There is no good evidence that ayurveda is effective to treat or cure cancer.^[10] Some ayurvedic preparations have been found to contain lead, mercury, and arsenic,^[9]^[21] substances known to be harmful to humans. A 2008 study found the three substances in close to 21% of U.S. and Indian-manufactured patent ayurvedic medicines sold through the Internet.^[22] The public health implications of such metallic contaminants in India are unknown.^[22]

^ "Ayurveda". Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 10 December 2016.
^ ^a ^b Meulenbeld, Gerrit Jan (1999). "Introduction". A History of Indian Medical Literature. Groningen: Egbert Forsten. ISBN 978-90-6980-124-7.
^ Cite error: The named reference Dargan was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Cite error: The named reference :3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Beall, Jeffrey (2018). "Scientific soundness and the problem of predatory journals". In Kaufman, Allison B.; Kaufman, James C. (eds.). Pseudoscience: The Conspiracy Against Science. MIT Press. p. 293. ISBN 978-0-262-03742-6. Archived from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2020. Ayurveda, a traditional Indian medicine, is the subject of more than a dozen, with some of these 'scholarly' journals devoted to Ayurveda alone ..., others to Ayurveda and some other pseudoscience. ... Most current Ayurveda research can be classified as 'tooth fairy science,' research that accepts as its premise something not scientifically known to exist. ... Ayurveda is a long-standing system of beliefs and traditions, but its claimed effects have not been scientifically proven. Most Ayurveda researchers might as well be studying the tooth fairy. The German publisher Wolters Kluwer bought the Indian open-access publisher Medknow in 2011....It acquired its entire fleet of journals, including those devoted to pseudoscience topics such as An International Quarterly Journal of Research in Ayurveda.
^ Semple D, Smyth R (2019). "Chapter 1: Thinking about psychiatry". Oxford Handbook of Psychiatry (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 24. doi:10.1093/med/9780198795551.003.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-879555-1. Archived from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 3 July 2020. These pseudoscientific theories may ... confuse metaphysical with empirical claims (e.g. ... Ayurvedic medicine)(subscription required)
^ Cite error: The named reference Quack-2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ ^a ^b Miller, Kelli (20 March 2021). "What Is Ayurveda?". WebMD. Medically Reviewed by Melinda Ratini. Archived from the original on 4 July 2020. Retrieved 16 August 2020.
^ ^a ^b Cite error: The named reference cruk was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Wujastyk 2003a.
^ Mukhopadhyaya, Girindranath (1913). The Surgical Instruments of the Hindus, with a Comparative Study of the Surgical Instruments of the Greek, Roman, Arab, and the Modern European Surgeons. Calcutta: Calcutta University. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
^ Zysk, Kenneth G. (1999). "Mythology and the Brāhmaṇization of Indian medicine: Transforming Heterodoxy into Orthodoxy". In Josephson, Folke (ed.). Categorisation and Interpretation. Meijerbergs institut för svensk etymologisk forskning, Göteborgs universitet. pp. 125–145. ISBN 978-91-630-7978-8.
^ Bhishagratna, Kaviraj Kunjalal (1907). An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita Based on Original Sanskrit text. Calcutta: K. K. Bhishagratna. p. 1. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
^ "Dhanvantari. (2010). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 4 August 2010, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online". Archived from the original on 27 April 2015. Retrieved 2 June 2022.
^ Birch, Jason; Wujastyk, Dominik; Klebanov, Andrey; Parameswaran, Madhu; Rimal, Madhusudan; Chakraborty, Deepro; Bhatt, Harshal; Shenoy, Devyani; Lele, Vandana (2021). "Further Insight into the Role of Dhanvantari, the physician to the gods, in the Suśrutasaṃhitā". Academia Letters. doi:10.20935/al2992. S2CID 238681626. Archived from the original on 15 April 2023. Retrieved 2 May 2022.
^ Wujastyk, Dagmar; Smith, Frederick M. (9 September 2013). Modern and Global Ayurveda: Pluralism and Paradigms. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-7816-5. Archived from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2022.
^ Meulenbeld, G. Jan (1999–2000). A history of Indian medical literature. Groningen: Egbert Forsten; Brill. pp. passim. ISBN 90-6980-124-8. OCLC 42207455.
^ Cite error: The named reference WujastykXVIII was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Sharma, Priya Vrat (1992). History of Medicine in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy.
^ Bhalla, A; Pannu, A K (15 January 2022). "Are Ayurvedic medications store house of heavy metals?" (PDF). Toxicology Research. 11 (1). Oxford University Press (published February 2022): 179–183. PMID 35237422.
^ ^a ^b Saper RB; Phillips RS; et al. (2008). "Lead, mercury, and arsenic in US- and Indian-manufactured medicines sold via the internet". JAMA. 300 (8): 915–923. doi:10.1001/jama.300.8.915. PMC 2755247. PMID 18728265.

[oxford-1] "Ayurveda". Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 10 December 2016.

[HIML-intro-2] Meulenbeld, Gerrit Jan (1999). "Introduction". A History of Indian Medical Literature. Groningen: Egbert Forsten. ISBN 978-90-6980-124-7.

[Dargan-3] Cite error: The named reference Dargan was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[:1-4] Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[:3-5] Cite error: The named reference :3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[kaufman-6] Beall, Jeffrey (2018). "Scientific soundness and the problem of predatory journals". In Kaufman, Allison B.; Kaufman, James C. (eds.). Pseudoscience: The Conspiracy Against Science. MIT Press. p. 293. ISBN 978-0-262-03742-6. Archived from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2020. Ayurveda, a traditional Indian medicine, is the subject of more than a dozen, with some of these 'scholarly' journals devoted to Ayurveda alone ..., others to Ayurveda and some other pseudoscience. ... Most current Ayurveda research can be classified as 'tooth fairy science,' research that accepts as its premise something not scientifically known to exist. ... Ayurveda is a long-standing system of beliefs and traditions, but its claimed effects have not been scientifically proven. Most Ayurveda researchers might as well be studying the tooth fairy. The German publisher Wolters Kluwer bought the Indian open-access publisher Medknow in 2011....It acquired its entire fleet of journals, including those devoted to pseudoscience topics such as An International Quarterly Journal of Research in Ayurveda.

[oxpsych-7] Semple D, Smyth R (2019). "Chapter 1: Thinking about psychiatry". Oxford Handbook of Psychiatry (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 24. doi:10.1093/med/9780198795551.003.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-879555-1. Archived from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 3 July 2020. These pseudoscientific theories may ... confuse metaphysical with empirical claims (e.g. ... Ayurvedic medicine)(subscription required)

[Quack-2011-8] Cite error: The named reference Quack-2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[WebMD-9] Miller, Kelli (20 March 2021). "What Is Ayurveda?". WebMD. Medically Reviewed by Melinda Ratini. Archived from the original on 4 July 2020. Retrieved 16 August 2020.

[cruk-10] Cite error: The named reference cruk was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[FOOTNOTEWujastyk2003a-11] Wujastyk 2003a.

[mukh-surg-12] Mukhopadhyaya, Girindranath (1913). The Surgical Instruments of the Hindus, with a Comparative Study of the Surgical Instruments of the Greek, Roman, Arab, and the Modern European Surgeons. Calcutta: Calcutta University. Retrieved 16 October 2015.

[zysk-myth-13] Zysk, Kenneth G. (1999). "Mythology and the Brāhmaṇization of Indian medicine: Transforming Heterodoxy into Orthodoxy". In Josephson, Folke (ed.). Categorisation and Interpretation. Meijerbergs institut för svensk etymologisk forskning, Göteborgs universitet. pp. 125–145. ISBN 978-91-630-7978-8.

[14] Bhishagratna, Kaviraj Kunjalal (1907). An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita Based on Original Sanskrit text. Calcutta: K. K. Bhishagratna. p. 1. Retrieved 16 October 2015.

[britannica-15] "Dhanvantari. (2010). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 4 August 2010, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online". Archived from the original on 27 April 2015. Retrieved 2 June 2022.

[16] Birch, Jason; Wujastyk, Dominik; Klebanov, Andrey; Parameswaran, Madhu; Rimal, Madhusudan; Chakraborty, Deepro; Bhatt, Harshal; Shenoy, Devyani; Lele, Vandana (2021). "Further Insight into the Role of Dhanvantari, the physician to the gods, in the Suśrutasaṃhitā". Academia Letters. doi:10.20935/al2992. S2CID 238681626. Archived from the original on 15 April 2023. Retrieved 2 May 2022.

[:9-17] Wujastyk, Dagmar; Smith, Frederick M. (9 September 2013). Modern and Global Ayurveda: Pluralism and Paradigms. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-7816-5. Archived from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2022.

[18] Meulenbeld, G. Jan (1999–2000). A history of Indian medical literature. Groningen: Egbert Forsten; Brill. pp. passim. ISBN 90-6980-124-8. OCLC 42207455.

[WujastykXVIII-19] Cite error: The named reference WujastykXVIII was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[shar-hist-20] Sharma, Priya Vrat (1992). History of Medicine in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy.

[:11-21] Bhalla, A; Pannu, A K (15 January 2022). "Are Ayurvedic medications store house of heavy metals?" (PDF). Toxicology Research. 11 (1). Oxford University Press (published February 2022): 179–183. PMID 35237422.

[Saper2008-22] Saper RB; Phillips RS; et al. (2008). "Lead, mercury, and arsenic in US- and Indian-manufactured medicines sold via the internet". JAMA. 300 (8): 915–923. doi:10.1001/jama.300.8.915. PMC 2755247. PMID 18728265.

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